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Article

In the Likeness of a God: The Non-Invasive Investigation of Animal Votives

by
Lidija McKnight
School of Biological Sciences, The University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
Heritage 2025, 8(7), 286; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070286
Submission received: 28 March 2025 / Revised: 15 July 2025 / Accepted: 16 July 2025 / Published: 17 July 2025

Abstract

Radiography, favoured for its ability to provide a non-invasive insight into the contents of wrapped or coffined artefacts, has revolutionised the study of mummified human and animal remains. Despite this potential, the technology is limited by its capacity to realistically visualise the surface attributes of these often-complex artefacts. In this paper, photogrammetry—a technique widely used in archaeology and heritage applications—is applied to build upon the radiographic investigation of six ancient Egyptian votive artefacts from Manchester Museum; a study which combines the two techniques for the first time on votive material from the collection. The paper showcases the results gained through clinical radiography techniques (digital X-ray and computed tomography) on the internal contents of the artefacts, highlighting the problems encountered when viewing the outer surface. With a simple on-site photogrammetry protocol, improved visualisation was possible, providing photo-realistic renderings with important potential for both research, conservation and engagement.

1. Introduction

In contrast to human mummies, which tend to contain the remains of a single individual, animal mummies have the potential to include complete or incomplete remains of almost any taxa available in the ancient Egyptian environment. For this reason, mummified animal remains represent an incredibly diverse assemblage covering a wealth of shapes, sizes, materials and physical attributes, making them exciting subjects for the study of ancient craftsmanship, Egyptian flora and fauna, and religious piety. In order to better understand their form and function, it is necessary to understand why and how they were manufactured.
Animals feature heavily in ancient Egyptian religion, as it was believed that living creatures occupied a liminal space between the earthly and divine worlds, awarding them ‘semi-divine’ status [1,2,3,4]. Attributes and characteristics demonstrated (or perceived to be demonstrated) by animals in their natural environment were likened to divine characteristics possessed by the gods [5]. These sacred associations formed the basis of their complex belief system with certain gods capable of manifesting in animal form [6,7]. Egyptian artistic conventions often depict deities in anthropomorphic or theriomorphic form (with the body of a human and the head of an animal or vice versa), emphasising the apparent interchangeable relationship between the two [8,9].
As witnessed in other Mediterranean countries [10,11,12], votive practice, the giving of offerings to the gods, formed an important element of religious life in ancient Egypt [13]. These offerings were given to a member of the divine pantheon either as a recognition of thanks or in anticipation of assistance. Votive artefacts made from metals, ceramics, wood, faience and stone, or in the form of an animal mummy, provided a tangible device through which the donor could communicate with their chosen god [14]. Documentary evidence to support the production and function of the artefacts is limited, and where it exists is restricted to particular sites and time periods (i.e., The Archive of Hor) [15], meaning that a comprehensive account of votive production and intention is difficult to formulate.
Estimates suggest that millions of mummies representing almost every conceivable species remain in their original resting places within underground catacombs [13,16,17]; however, many were excavated and distributed by archaeological missions, or purchased and transported by travellers and have since found their way into museums and private collections worldwide. Due to the nature of their collection, records relating to their acquisition and accession are lacking sufficient detail in the majority of cases. Some institutions and individual donors received sizeable assemblages in lieu of their financial sponsorship of archaeological excavations. During the 1800s, it was fashionable for wealthy socialites to travel to Egypt as part of their Grand Tour [18,19,20,21,22,23,24]. While some of these travellers had the means to procure large objects such as sarcophagi and statues, many purchased animal mummies, which appealed due to their small size and portability [25]. These collections formed an individuals’ private ‘cabinet of curiosities’, which over time were bequeathed or donated to public museum collections. As a result, animal mummies can be found in a myriad of museum settings, from large national museum collections to smaller local authority museums and independent institutions such as private schools and stately homes [18].
Votive animal mummies were preserved artificially using waxes and resins before being wrapped in multiple layers of linen bandages [26,27,28,29]. Their external appearance varies yet appears to follow standardised body forms and stylistic decorative trends [30]. Ancient Egyptian religion was literal in its conventions, meaning that realism as an aesthetic was valued. In basic terms, appearance was everything. Votive offerings, no matter what their origin, were created in the likeness of the god. The motivations for this were two-fold—firstly, to make them recognisable to the donor or onlooker, and secondly, that the deity to whom the offering was intended would recognise and therefore accept the offering. Offerings created in their own image appealed to the vanity of the gods which, it was hoped, made them more receptive to the pleas of the donor [13,14].
A perplexing dichotomy surrounds votive practice. Modern Western views suggest that the appearance of a votive offering should align with the nature of the contents, dictating that an animal mummy should contain a complete animal [31]. Anything other than this is often labelled a forgery or a fake, being interpreted as a deliberate act on the behalf of the embalmers to deceive or dupe the donor. This is perhaps more a reflection of modern cynicism, than ancient intention. Studies suggest that only around a third of animal mummies contain a complete animal individual [30]. A further third contain parts of one or more animals (of the same or different species), and the final third consist entirely of non-skeletal animal material (e.g., feathers or eggshell) or non-animal material (e.g., vegetal matter, sand, linen, etc.). This variety and complexity suggests that applying a blanket description of ‘fakes’ to approximately 66% of the mummy assemblage is overly simplifying the practice. In all cases, and irrespective of the contents, the external appearance is recognisable, meaning that a true and pseudo mummy are indistinguishable by external appearance alone [31].
The act of wrapping votives of all kinds in linen was a wholly intentional act designed to shroud the contents of the bundle from view, thereby enhancing the element of secrecy [32,33]. Mummies epitomise this more than any other kind of votive, where the contents are completely hidden under multiple layers of linen bandages. Votive bronzes were often discovered with their original linen shrouds; a means of providing clothing or protection to the god whilst invoking secrecy and enhancing votive potency. Votive artefacts such as reliquaries and coffinettes, whether made from wood or bronze, fulfilled the same function [13,14].
Numerous theories exist to explain the relationship between the external appearance and internal contents of votives [34]. These theories intend to provide plausible reasons explanations for this ancient behaviour; to provide retrospective validation to the embalmers, and to make their actions make sense to modern sensibilities. Whether these mummies are created from materials collected from sacred spaces, those that have come into contact with sacred animals, or that a part represents the whole, we may never fully know. The individuals who purchased and dedicated these gifts to the gods likely knew nothing of the contents of an individual offering. The most important factor was the outward appearance–provided that the offering looked the part, it would communicate their message to the god [14].
Historically, votive research involved the removal of the external covering to uncover the contents, thereby revealing the ancient secret [32,35,36]. Research now favours largely non-invasive methods of study, investigating both the contents and the exterior yet leaving artefacts as we find them [37,38]. This study investigates whether combining radiographic data from the Ancient Egyptian Animal Bio Bank project [39,40,41,42] with photogrammetry can provide a more comprehensive representation of animal mummies, particularly in terms of surface texture, detail, and colour.

2. Materials and Methods

Six animal mummies from the Manchester Museum collection representing a range of species and external characteristics were chosen for study (Figure 1).

2.1. Radiographic Method

Clinical and industrial radiographic imaging modalities lie at the forefront of modern scientific research, allowing researchers to visualise the contents of mummy bundles whilst retaining the integrity of the artefact. Research at the University of Manchester has led to the formulation of a robust protocol for the study of mummified animal remains [39]. Digital radiography (DR) is the most accessible imaging technique and an excellent triage method, offering an all-important ‘first glimpse’ into the contents of wrapped mummy bundles. However, its potential is limited as it produces a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional artefact, leading to superimposition, blurring and magnification of structures [40,41].
When investigating mummies, many complications affect the clarity of visualisation of internal structures using radiographic techniques. Where skeletal remains exist, they are often fragmentary, incomplete or comingled (from different individuals or species) making species identifications difficult if not impossible [42,43]. The process of mummification causes tissues to desiccate leading to hardened, brittle remains that display a shape, form and density different to those of living tissues [44,45]. This can make it extremely difficult to interpret datasets using thresholding, where relative tissue densities are used to separate out tissue types for improved visualisation. The use of mummification materials, linen wrappings, containers and sarcophagi present a further barrier to visualisation. Despite these potential problems, DR remains the go-to triage method for investigating mummy bundles, providing an initial insight into bundle contents and directing future studies.
The development of computed tomography (CT scanning) in the 1970s revolutionised mummy studies [46,47]. The technique gathers data from 360 degrees around the artefact, producing a dataset which can be manipulated and viewed from any angle, thereby reducing the complications caused by superimposition, blurring and overlapping as seen in conventional DR. However, despite the clarity it provides when investigating bundle contents, CT struggles to sufficiently capture the surface detail of the bundle exterior. This is due to the axial nature of data acquisition and the arbitrary interpolation (filling in) of structures between the axial slices to create a 3D model giving an unnatural texture to the artefact surface. Another factor is the inability of scanner-specific software to depict structures and surfaces in realistic colours, instead arbitrarily assigning unnatural shades (Figure 2). Clinical scanners are designed to image living human bodies for the purpose of diagnosing trauma and disease, and processing software uses unnatural coloured presets based upon density as a useful tool in differentiating tissue types. Desiccation and the difficulties differentiating between tissue types in mummies causes these thresholding presets to appear inaccurate and unnatural.
The six mummies in this research project were radiographically examined at the Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust between 2011 and 2014 as part of the Ancient Egyptian Animal Bio Bank project [39,40,41,42]. All six were studied using both DR and CT to ensure as comprehensive a dataset as possible was obtained, using the protocols developed and refined in Manchester [39,40]. DR images were acquired using a Philips Eleve Diagnostic system in both anterior–posterior (AP) and lateral (LAT) projections at an exposure of 57 kV 1 mAs. CT data was acquired using a 128-row MDCT Siemens Somatom Definition AS+ scanner at a pitch of 0.9691 with a slice thickness of 0.625 mm. CT data was reconstructed, including surface rendering, using proprietary scanner-specific software and Osirix (Pixmeo, Bernex, Geneva, Switzerland).

2.2. Photogrammetric Method

Photogrammetry is a relatively uncomplicated process in which numerous overlapping photographic images are captured from multiple points around an artefact. Computer software uses triangulation to recognise and map these homologous points to create a sparse point cloud, a dense point cloud, a mesh and ultimately allows for a complete virtual photo-realistic 3D model (Figure 3) [48].
With the rise in the application of digital technologies as a means of engaging the public with the scientific analyses of museum artefacts, methods which improve our ability to portray artefacts realistically is gaining importance. Photogrammetric techniques have demonstrated great potential in the non-invasive surface recording of monuments, sculpture and artefacts, including ancient Egyptian human mummies [49,50,51,52,53]; however, their application to non-human mummified remains and related votive artefacts, is limited.
The six specimens were studied using photogrammetry at the Manchester Museum conservation laboratory in February 2018. Due to their fragility and the extensive variety of contents in wrapped animal mummy bundles, each specimen presented individual requirements which affected their study. A conservator was present throughout the scanning session to ensure that the mummies were handled as little as possible during data acquisition.
Initially, a number of commonly available cameras including an iPhone 10, a Samsung S6 and a Nikon P900 bridge camera were trialled to assess the accessibility of the technique. Firstly, a ‘roving’ method was used involving the generation of over-lapping photographs with the object is in a fixed position on a flat surface. This method is suitable for artefacts which are either too large to fit inside a light box, or which are considered too fragile to be placed safely on a turntable. Tyvek sheeting was used to cover the table-top surface prior to the positioning of the artefact. The light conditions in the lab were not controlled for this test with natural light provided by two large windows. Despite this, no light bleed or flare effects were generated in the resulting datasets.
The datasets were processed using 3DF Zephyr (3D Flow, Verona, Italy) and the results compared between the different cameras used. Upon review of these results, it was clear that the dataset generated by the Nikon P900 produced optimal data. It was decided that the Nikon would be used to generate further datasets.
For the second data acquisition session, an equipment setup was designed using a standard photography light box with a turntable consistent in colour with the black background. Many commercial options are available for automated turntables with measurable increments; however, for this pilot study the use of non-specialist equipment was prioritised to evaluate the accessibility of the technique. Incremental recording was possible using a turntable cover with measured ten-degree increments (Figure 4).
Setting up the P900 on a tripod, the test subject was photographed using multiple revolutions at varying heights and angles with measured increments of ten degrees, resulting in 36 photographs per revolution. The dataset was immediately transferred to a dedicated workstation for processing and the results examined following each stage.
Based upon the success of the first attempt and the acquisition of satisfactory data, the decision was made to apply the same methodology to the remaining five mummies. As part of the image acquisition process, we sought to generate a dataset that would result in a full 360-degree reconstruction of each subject. For each scan, conservation advice was sought as to whether the artefact was in a suitable condition to allow repositioning on the turntable in order to generate a complete dataset. Four of the six subjects were sufficiently stable; however, the remaining two subjects, the cat coffin (9303a-b) and snake coffin (1195) were considered too fragile, and although could be handled with care, the decision was made not to reposition them to obtain images of the coffin bases.
The datasets were processed using 3DF Zephyr (3D Flow, Verona, Italy) for both the iPhone images and the roving scans. The 3DF Masquerade tool within the Zephyr 3DF v3.702 software was used to mask the images, allowing blocks of the data to be virtually removed, temporarily, from the processing phase [54]. Masking instructs the software not to triangulate matching points between different images located within these blocked out areas, thereby eliminating any unwanted ‘noise’ caused by features external to the artefact (in the background) or by inconsistent movement of the turntable. This is a useful tool when acquiring image data for artefacts in cases where the image acquisition setup might be less than optimal due to the available environment, whether that be in a laboratory, a museum storeroom, gallery or on an archaeological site.

3. Results

An initial physical examination of the six mummies in the study group was conducted to record the appearance (dimensions, shape, surface texture, decorative style and colour) and preservation condition, including recording areas of damage (lost wrappings or exposed physical remains) and previous consolidatory conservation work (Table 1). This was important to establish the condition of each mummy prior to study, thereby establishing their research viability. Describing their physical attributes provided a baseline assessment of the surface, enabling a comparison with the scientific techniques which followed to be conducted.

3.1. Radiographic Results

The nature of the contents of the six votive mummies as revealed through radiographic investigation is outlined in Table 2 below. In summary, two of the bundles contain the remains of a complete and articulated individual, three contain partial remains and one is constructed entirely from organic matter. Radiographic images can be seen in Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10.

3.2. Photogrammetric Results

The study demonstrated that photogrammetric datasets of sufficient quality to enable increased visualisation of the exterior surfaces of the wrapped mummies could be generated using a simple acquisition process and basic equipment. The resulting radiographic image, white mesh and photo realistic model for each specimen can be seen in Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10.

4. Discussion

Despite inherent difficulties posed by radiographic techniques and problems in the visualisation of desiccated remains, radiography remains the only non-invasive technique through which the internal contents of wrapped mummy bundles can be evaluated. Of particular importance is the ability of radiography to highlight areas within mummy bundles where the structural integrity of the artefact is compromised, but which is not visible to the naked eye. This was demonstrated in the case of mummies 11,293 and 13,861 where fractures are evident within the bundle core, but which do not extend through the external layers of linen. The inability of the CT data obtained in this study to adequately reconstruct surface detail, texture and colour, posed a considerable disadvantage (Figure 2).
Photogrammetry has demonstrable capacity to increase our understanding of mummy bundles by comprehensively recording external detail. In this study, photogrammetry was able to reveal fine detail which had not been previously noted during visual examination. This was particularly pertinent in the case of the cat coffin 9303a-b where black linear markings applied to the exterior of the coffin depicted anatomical detail such as muscles, claws, whiskers and even a pectoral around the neck (Figure 11). Photogrammetry enabled a number of different coloured pigments to be identified on the remaining plaster layer, suggesting that the coffin would originally have been more brightly coloured. It should be noted that mummified specimens, along with many archaeological artefacts, can represent problematic subjects for photogrammetric study using automated imaged-based 3D technologies. Factors such as homogeneous and unstructured surfaces, such as those found in linen-wrapped mummies without external decorative features, or conducting photogrammetry of artefacts which cannot be removed from their display location, may contribute to lack of clarity of the completed model [56,57]. This was demonstrated in the case of the cat coffin 9303a-b where a small area on the neck of the cat appears out of focus (see Figure 11, bottom left), possibly caused by a lack of diversity in the colour of the wood in that area of the artefact.
In all cases, the construction of the white mesh prior to the application of the photo realistic model was able to enhance the visualisation of surface detail formed by the application of linen wrappings, or in the texture of the wood used in votive production. Although less visually impressive, inspection of the mesh removes the distraction of colour and enables the fine detail of texture to be examined.
The completed 3D models were uploaded onto SketchFab [58], an online file sharing platform, which proved to be a useful tool to increase the accessibility of the artefacts and to present them in an attractive and interactive way. SketchFab provides a user-friendly platform which allows models to be uploaded and displayed with the optional benefit of allowing annotations to describe the content to increase the educational value. In the case of this research, of particular value was the ability to showcase virtual artefacts at a time when the physical collection was not on public display due to a major capital project at the museum.
The author acknowledges that the potential of the research presented here is limited by a number of factors. Firstly, by the small number of cases (n = 6), which, while sufficient for exploratory analysis, constrains the potential for broader generalisations and highlights the need for further research involving a larger and more varied sample. Secondly, by the technology available in the clinical setting at the time, and by the low-budget photogrammetry equipment chosen to determine the accessibility of the technique. Thirdly, the reduced surface detail observed in the 3D CT surface reconstructions in this study could be at least partly due to the use of older CT imaging hardware and reconstruction software. The use of modern CT imaging hardware, which allows for thinner slice acquisition, enables improved 3D imaging quality, while advanced reconstruction software enhances surface rendering, resulting in better visualisation of external details. Future studies should consider employing these advanced technologies to explore their effect on the surface rendering of mummy bundles. Published research in clinical imaging and industrial technology over recent years suggests that marked improvements in surface colour and texture visualisation have been made. For example, the application of CT-to-colour mapping using cryosection data from the National Library of Medicine’s Visible Human Project [59,60]. In this research, a databank produced from whole body CT scans of donated human cadavers provides a complete library of images, which, when mapped onto traditional density-led CT data offers the potential to accurately portray tissue colours and characteristics. In industry, research has sought to align CT locations to the photogrammetric point cloud, thereby uniting the two datasets to allow accurate colour representation [61].
Elements of these technological advancements are filtering into archaeology and mummy studies [48,62,63] so although we remain limited by the artefacts under study, our ability to accurately replicate their internal and external appearance is improving. For example, 3D printing technologies enable the internal contents of mummy bundles to be reconstructed to scale, posing important potential for the identification of species and extraneous inclusions [43,44,45]. Our ability to introduce this technology into studies such as the one described in this paper would further boost artefact accessibility, particularly with objects which cannot normally be handled, or for visually impaired visitors.

5. Conclusions

This research highlights the potential value of combining dual imaging techniques to explore the relationship between the external appearance and internal contents of animal mummy bundles and associated votive artefacts, based on a limited sample of six cases. Further experimentation using more advanced apparatus for the acquisition of both radiographic and photogrammetric data is undoubtedly necessary; however, using the technology available here, it became clear to the author, curators and conservators who work closely with these artefacts on a daily basis, that the level of detail permitted using photogrammetry can highlight features, details and colouring unnoticeable with the naked eye. Of particular value is the potential of photogrammetry (conducted in this case using standard equipment) to increase accessibility and visitor engagement with museum artefacts [53].
Although our fascination with seeing what’s inside mummies continues, it seems appropriate, given the importance placed upon external appearance by the ancient people who created these artefacts, that we replicate their appearance as faithfully as possible using the technologies available to us today.

Funding

This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council [grant number: AH/P005047/1].

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the author on request.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to extend thanks to all the museums that have taken part in the wider research project, particularly to curator, Campbell Price, and the conservation staff at Manchester Museum for their support and assistance with this pilot study. Radiographic investigation was performed at the Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust with the support of the Neville Wright, Sarah Franks and Tania Abbott. Photogrammetry and post-processing was conducted by Lee McStein of Monument Men. Without them this research would not have been possible.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. Photographic images of the six specimens in the pilot study—clockwise from top left—cat coffin (9303a-b); cat mummy (6293); falcon mummy (11,293); crocodile mummy (13861); wooden coffinette (1195); and amorphous bundle (6033) [39] (© Manchester Museum, The University of Manchester. Photographers: Alan Seabright and Paul Cliff).
Figure 1. Photographic images of the six specimens in the pilot study—clockwise from top left—cat coffin (9303a-b); cat mummy (6293); falcon mummy (11,293); crocodile mummy (13861); wooden coffinette (1195); and amorphous bundle (6033) [39] (© Manchester Museum, The University of Manchester. Photographers: Alan Seabright and Paul Cliff).
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Figure 2. Photograph (left) and CT reformation (right) of artefact 9303a-b demonstrating the stark difference between photo realistic depiction and the arbitrary colours assigned by the proprietary CT scanner software (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany) based upon material density. Annotations on the reformation refer to scanning orientation, spin and tilt. (Photograph by Alan Seabright).
Figure 2. Photograph (left) and CT reformation (right) of artefact 9303a-b demonstrating the stark difference between photo realistic depiction and the arbitrary colours assigned by the proprietary CT scanner software (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany) based upon material density. Annotations on the reformation refer to scanning orientation, spin and tilt. (Photograph by Alan Seabright).
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Figure 3. An illustration of the photogrammetric process for the Manchester Museum cat coffin, 9303a-b: clockwise from top left sparse point cloud, dense point cloud, a mesh and photo-realistic 3D model (Images by Lee McStein).
Figure 3. An illustration of the photogrammetric process for the Manchester Museum cat coffin, 9303a-b: clockwise from top left sparse point cloud, dense point cloud, a mesh and photo-realistic 3D model (Images by Lee McStein).
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Figure 4. Photograph showing artefact 9303a-b positioned on the turntable inside the lightbox. Aligning the increments on the turntable cover with the front marker allowed for precise photo acquisition.
Figure 4. Photograph showing artefact 9303a-b positioned on the turntable inside the lightbox. Aligning the increments on the turntable cover with the front marker allowed for precise photo acquisition.
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Figure 5. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and CT reformat of mummy 13861. The reformat confirms the presence of a partial crocodile skeleton, wrapped in reeds and linen bandages. A fracture can be seen through the tail area which does not penetrate the external layers of bandages, indicating that the bundle has sustained damage which may benefit from stabilisation.
Figure 5. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and CT reformat of mummy 13861. The reformat confirms the presence of a partial crocodile skeleton, wrapped in reeds and linen bandages. A fracture can be seen through the tail area which does not penetrate the external layers of bandages, indicating that the bundle has sustained damage which may benefit from stabilisation.
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Figure 6. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and digital radiograph of mummy 6033. Radiographic image adapted from McKnight 2010; 50 and 77 [30], and Adams 2015; 70 [39].
Figure 6. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and digital radiograph of mummy 6033. Radiographic image adapted from McKnight 2010; 50 and 77 [30], and Adams 2015; 70 [39].
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Figure 7. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and digital radiograph of mummy 1195. The radiograph reveals the hollow section within the coffinette containing skeletal remains within what appears to be an organic matrix. Radiodense patches are visible radiographically around the exterior of the coffinette suggestive of a plaster coating which is visible through photogrammetry. Radiographic image adapted from McKnight 2010; 76 [30].
Figure 7. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and digital radiograph of mummy 1195. The radiograph reveals the hollow section within the coffinette containing skeletal remains within what appears to be an organic matrix. Radiodense patches are visible radiographically around the exterior of the coffinette suggestive of a plaster coating which is visible through photogrammetry. Radiographic image adapted from McKnight 2010; 76 [30].
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Figure 8. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and sagittal CT reformat of mummy 6293. Radiography shows that the bundle contains limited skeletal material, visible as radiodense anomalies, located towards the base of the bundle. The remainder of the bundle, including the modelled head, appears to be formed from linen and granular material, bound with linen.
Figure 8. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and sagittal CT reformat of mummy 6293. Radiography shows that the bundle contains limited skeletal material, visible as radiodense anomalies, located towards the base of the bundle. The remainder of the bundle, including the modelled head, appears to be formed from linen and granular material, bound with linen.
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Figure 9. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and coronal CT reformat of mummy 11293. The mesh highlights the presence of a small depression located in the front mid-section of the bundle, which is barely visible by eye. Radiography confirms that the bundle is formed from reeds laid longitudinally and bound with linen. This bundle also has a fracture through the core towards the mid-distal area. Radiographic image adapted from McKnight 2010; 85 [30].
Figure 9. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and coronal CT reformat of mummy 11293. The mesh highlights the presence of a small depression located in the front mid-section of the bundle, which is barely visible by eye. Radiography confirms that the bundle is formed from reeds laid longitudinally and bound with linen. This bundle also has a fracture through the core towards the mid-distal area. Radiographic image adapted from McKnight 2010; 85 [30].
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Figure 10. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and digital radiograph of mummy 9303a-b. Radiography confirms the presence of a complete and articulated feline individual mummified in the standard skittle shape (as demonstrated with cat mummy 6293) located in the coffin void. Radiographic image adapted from Sportun 2015; 98 [55].
Figure 10. Photo realistic 3D model, mesh and digital radiograph of mummy 9303a-b. Radiography confirms the presence of a complete and articulated feline individual mummified in the standard skittle shape (as demonstrated with cat mummy 6293) located in the coffin void. Radiographic image adapted from Sportun 2015; 98 [55].
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Figure 11. Photo realistic modelling increased the visualisation of hand drawn black lines on artefact 9303a-b which appear to depict muscle attachments, claws and other features. These lines add a layer of complexity to the artefact and suggest an attempt to increase the naturalistic depiction of the subject.
Figure 11. Photo realistic modelling increased the visualisation of hand drawn black lines on artefact 9303a-b which appear to depict muscle attachments, claws and other features. These lines add a layer of complexity to the artefact and suggest an attempt to increase the naturalistic depiction of the subject.
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Table 1. Table describing the appearance and condition of the six animal mummies. (© Manchester Museum, The University of Manchester. Photographers: Alan Seabright and Paul Cliff).
Table 1. Table describing the appearance and condition of the six animal mummies. (© Manchester Museum, The University of Manchester. Photographers: Alan Seabright and Paul Cliff).
Accession No.Image
(Not to Scale)
External Description
13861Heritage 08 00286 i001Fully wrapped bundle with no discernable areas of damage. The upper aspect is decorated with four geometric square lozenges completed with a striped section over the tail area. The head is covered in a darker brown linen and has two false eyes. Excellent condition with no loose linen wrappings evident. Dimensions 410 × 70 × 40 (mm)
6033Heritage 08 00286 i002Amorphous-shaped bundle wrapped in medium brown linen with a smaller ovoid-shaped bundle attached to the upper aspect. The bundle is wrapped in pale brown linen, with patches of a darker linen fixed to the surface. The museum number is written on the side in parentheses. Excellent condition. Dimensions 120 × 45 × 35 (mm).
1195Heritage 08 00286 i003Crudely carved wooden box with a removeable base. The upper aspect depicts a snake emblem in a ‘figure of eight’ shape. The wood is rough to touch and the base is loose with some debris having become separated from the main artefact. This artefact should not be excessively handled to avoid the further loss of contents. Dimensions 145 × 75 × 55 (mm).
6293Heritage 08 00286 i004Completely wrapped cylindrical bundle which narrows towards the modelled head. The front is adorned with a geometrically patterned panel. The modelled head displays two eyes and mouth created from a darker linen than the base colour from which the ears and muzzle are moulded. A small paper label is fixed to the front of the bundle, giving the museum no. 6293. Excellent condition. Dimensions 345 × 75 × 55 (mm).
11293Heritage 08 00286 i005Fully wrapped bundle in a tightly compressed anthropoid form with a false head and feet. The face and breast area are gilded and depict the facial features of a hawk. A linen shroud covers the back of the head and wraps around the front to leave a small gilded area visible. Excellent condition. Dimensions 360 × 100 × 60 (mm).
9303a-bHeritage 08 00286 i006A substantial wooden artefact in the form of a seated cat constructed in four sections, joined together with wooden dowels. Some attempts to depict musculature and anatomic features (such as the tail, legs and face) are evident in the form of carved attributes and black lines. It appears that the surface may once have been painted or covered with a layer of a gesso-type material. Excellent condition. Dimensions 45 × 360 × 145 (mm), weight 4.45 kg.
Table 2. Table describing the six animal mummies and their radiographic identification.
Table 2. Table describing the six animal mummies and their radiographic identification.
Accession No./Corresponding FigureProvenance/Accession InformationRepresented Species (Suggested by External Form)Species (Radiographic Identification)
13861/5Naukratis. Robinow
Collection, no.72
CrocodileCrocodylus niloticus (Nile crocodile)
Partial skeleton
6033/6Unknown.
Donated by Mr. J. and A. Williams
IndeterminateShrew—complete and articulated
1195/7Distributed from Egypt Exploration Society excavations at HibehSealed rectangular wooden coffinette with carved snake decorationSnake (MNI > 1)
6293/8Beni Hasan, 22nd Dynasty. Collected by Prof. Garstang, Liverpool Institute of Archaeology in Egypt (1910-11 or 1920 season)FelineBundle containing an isolated vertebra of
feline origin
11293/9Acquired from the Robinow Collection, January 1959FalconPseudo mummy
constructed from
organic matter
9303a-b/10Excavated by Cecil Firth at the Sacred Animal
Necropolis, North Saqqara
Sealed wooden
coffinette
resembling a seated feline
Feline–complete and articulated
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McKnight, L. In the Likeness of a God: The Non-Invasive Investigation of Animal Votives. Heritage 2025, 8, 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070286

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McKnight L. In the Likeness of a God: The Non-Invasive Investigation of Animal Votives. Heritage. 2025; 8(7):286. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070286

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McKnight, Lidija. 2025. "In the Likeness of a God: The Non-Invasive Investigation of Animal Votives" Heritage 8, no. 7: 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070286

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McKnight, L. (2025). In the Likeness of a God: The Non-Invasive Investigation of Animal Votives. Heritage, 8(7), 286. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8070286

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