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Article

Paleoenvironmental Analysis and Rice Farming at the Huangshan Site, Central China

by
Hao Lu
1,
Jun Chai
2,*,
Jun-Cai Ma
3 and
Kun Liang
4
1
School of History, Beijing Normal University, No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, China
2
School of Cultural Heritage, Beijing City University, No. 26 Yangzhen Section, Muyan Road, Shunyi District, Beijing 101309, China
3
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology, No. 9 Longhai North Third Street, Guancheng Hui District, Zhengzhou 450000, China
4
Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 39 East Beijing Road, Nanjing 210008, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Heritage 2025, 8(6), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060232
Submission received: 18 April 2025 / Revised: 9 June 2025 / Accepted: 10 June 2025 / Published: 18 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Archaeological Heritage)
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Abstract

The Huangshan site in Nanyang, situated at the junction of the Nanyang Basin and the Jianghan Plain, represents a critical region for understanding the northward expansion of rice farming in China. Due to the scarcity of suitable organic material, the dating of the channel section at Huangshan relies primarily on cultural relics. By employing grain-size analysis, pollen analysis, and phytolith analysis on sediment samples from the site’s river section, we established a comprehensive framework of hydrology, climate, vegetation, and agricultural activities during the Yangshao to Qujialing periods (ca. 7000–4600 BP). The findings indicate a relative decline in temperature during the Yangshao period, followed by a return to warm and humid conditions during the Qujialing period, which coincided with the peak intensity of rice farming. The continuous expansion of rice farming at the Huangshan site during prehistoric times is likely linked to the northward spread of Qujialing culture. The large-scale production of rice not only provided an economic foundation for the growth of the Huangshan settlement but also facilitated its development into a regional hub for jade production and trade. This study offers new environmental archaeological insights into the interactions between the middle Yangtze River region and the Central Plains during the late Neolithic period.

1. Introduction

The Huangshan site in Nanyang, Henan Province, located in Huangshan Village, Pushan Town, Nanyang City, lies at the convergence zone of the middle Yangtze River and the Yellow River (Figure 1). This site is composed of two parts: the jade workshop ruins of Yangshao culture (ca. 7000–5000 BP) and graves of Qujialing culture (ca. 5000–4600 BP), as well as the canal section. As one of China’s most significant regions for the development of Neolithic jade culture, the site is renowned for its extensive remains of jade-processing workshops, which provide critical insights into the core mechanisms of Neolithic jade craftsmanship. Approximately 300 m west of the site’s core area, archaeological investigations have uncovered a canal section, where remnants of an ancient canal and wharf were found. This ancient waterway extends southwestward for several kilometres, connecting to historic mining pits of Dushan Jade, one of China’s “Four Great Famous Jades”. These features highlight three distinctive characteristics of the Huangshan site: prolonged cultural continuity, diverse archaeological remains, and a strategic geographical location. Initial excavations conducted between late 1958 and early 1959 revealed hundreds of jade and stone tools, drawing significant scholarly attention to the site [1,2,3,4,5]. A second phase of excavations, beginning in 2018 and continuing through 2022, has yielded further remarkable discoveries. These include Yangshao culture workshop–residential complexes and Qujialing culture burial clusters. Over 23,000 stone implements and more than 8000 jade artefacts, fragments, and raw materials have been recovered, predominantly preserved in situ within architectural remains, ash pits, and tombs [6]. These findings collectively indicate large-scale jade production activities during the late Neolithic period, offering unique insights into the evolution of Chinese jade culture. The presence of agricultural tools among the relics further underscores the site’s agrarian economic foundation and positions the Huanshan site as a potential hub for agricultural exchange and cultural interactions in the Nanyang Basin [5,7,8]. However, our current understanding of agricultural practices at Huangshan primarily relies on the analysis of production tools, with systematic archaeobotanical investigations yet to be conducted.
To address these gaps, this study integrates paleoclimatic reconstruction and agricultural archaeology investigations at the canal section at the Huangshan site. Focusing on fluvial sedimentary profiles, we employ grain-size analysis to reconstruct the sedimentary environment, pollen analysis to reconstruct paleoenvironmental conditions, and phytolith analysis to characterise agricultural systems. Due to the small size of pollen grains, which makes reliable age dating difficult, and the limited organic remains, there are no other suitable organic materials in the sedimentary sequences. Therefore, chronological constraints currently permit only preliminary temporal divisions based on cultural remains. Through these interdisciplinary approaches, we aim to clarify the processes of climate change and agricultural development during the late Neolithic period. This will help elucidate the dynamic relationships between subsistence strategies, archaeological cultural transitions, and environmental evolution at the Huangshan site.

2. Materials and Methods

The Huangshan site is located in Huangshan Village, Pushan Town, in the northeastern part of Nanyang City, Henan Province. Situated on the west bank of the Baihe River, it lies approximately 3 km southwest of Dushan Hill and 3 km northwest of Pushan Hill (Figure 1). The site is positioned on a fifth-level river terrace, 17 m above the current water level. The active excavation area currently covers 2400 square metres and primarily preserves cultural relics dating from the early Yangshao period (7000 BP) to the Qujialing period (4600 BP). Strategically located between the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, the Huangshan site lies at the junction of northern and southern China. This unique geographical position makes it highly significant for exploring the history of cultural integration and exchange between the northern and southern regions of Chinese civilisation.
Recent excavations at the Huangshan site have uncovered remarkable findings, including the earliest known jade processing workshop in China, Qujialing-period burials containing jade artefacts and pig mandibles, and a large number of jade fragments and grinding tools. These discoveries indicate that the site served as a regional centre for jade handicraft production between 7000 and 4600 years ago [6]. In addition to workshops and burial mounds, China’s earliest known man-made canal was also identified near the site. Nanyang’s unique natural environment and strategic geographical location further underscore its role as a vital centre for jade processing and trade in ancient China, reflecting the continuity and sophistication of Chinese civilisation.
The canal section is located on the west side of the Huangshan site. It is about 4.5 m in height and can be divided into 15 layers. The fourth layer is particularly thick and was divided into 4a and 4b. Based on the characteristics of the artefacts unearthed from the cultural layers, layers 14 to 12 of the canal section were attributed to the early to late Yangshao period, while layers 11 to 10 were assigned to the Qujialing cultural period. The ages of layers 9 to 2 remain unclear, and the top layer represents modern topsoil. There is limited sedimentary structure on the canal section, which indicates an undisturbed sedimentary environment.
A total of 15 soil samples were collected, with 1 kg of soil collected from each layer. Grain-size analysis, pollen analysis, and phytolith analysis were conducted on these samples. This study focuses on the changes observed in layers 14 to 10. The detailed sample numbers, corresponding layers, and sampling locations are shown in Figure 2 and Table 1.
For grain-size analysis, approximately 0.25 g of each sample was treated with 30% H2O2 and 10% HCl to remove organic matter and carbonates. Next, the samples were soaked in distilled water to allow for sufficient sedimentation. After sedimentation, the supernatant was decanted, and 0.05 M (NaPO3)6 was added as a dispersant. The samples were then placed in an ultrasonic disperser and oscillated for 10–15 min to form a highly dispersed particle suspension. Grain-size analysis was performed using a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 laser grain-size analyser, which covers a grain-size range of 0.02–2000 μm. The system operates on a volume-dependent principle, and the measured grain-size distribution reflects the volume distribution of the particles [9]. The analyser provides four key parameters: Mz (mean grain size, Φ), σ (standard deviation, Φ), Sk (skewness), and Kg (kurtosis). Mz is calculated with Φ (Φ = −log2 grain diameter [mm]). The larger the Mz, the smaller the grain. σ measures grain-size dispersion. A σ value over 1 represents a poorly sorted sample. Sk measures distribution asymmetry. When Sk is bigger than 0, it indicates coarser grains in the sample, while an Sk value smaller than 0 indicate more fine grains. Kg indicates the source of the sediments. Kg values bigger than 1 indicate that the source is stable and concentrated, while Kg values smaller than 1 reflect a complex sedimentary source [10]. The grain-size analysis was conducted at the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development.
For pollen analysis, 10% HCl and 40% HF solutions were used to remove impurities such as carbonates, nitrates, and organic components. An ultrasonic shaker and a 10 μm sieve were employed to further eliminate particles smaller than 10 μm. The remaining material was preserved and prepared for microscopic analysis. At least 300 grains of terrestrial plant pollen from each sample were identified under a microscope. When pollen counts were insufficient, the entire sample was counted. Pollen identification was conducted using pollen atlases specific to the arid and semi-arid regions of China [11,12]. Pollen diagrams were generated using Tilia v2.6.1 [13,14]. Both phytoliths and pollen analyses were conducted at the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
For phytoliths analysis, approximately 2 g of each sample was treated with 30% H2O2 and 15% HCl to remove organic matter and carbonates. The samples were then subjected to heavy liquid flotation using ZnBr2 (density = 2.35 g/cm3) to isolate the phytoliths. The extracted phytoliths were mounted on slides using Canada Balsam and air-dried. Phytoliths were counted and identified under a Leica microscope at ×400 magnification. For samples containing rice phytoliths, slides were scanned until 50 rice bulliform phytoliths with clear and countable scales were observed. The proportion of rice bulliform phytoliths with ≥9 scales was calculated [15,16].

3. Results

3.1. Grain-Size Analysis

The general grain-size distribution of the canal section is predominantly fine silt. More than 30% of the grains consist of fine silt in each layer, reaching 50% in layer 9, which indicates a flooding event (Figure 3). The average grain size (Mz) throughout the canal section ranges from 4.77 to 5.63 Φ, spanning the range from coarse silt (4–5 Φ) to fine silt (5–8 Φ), indicating an undisturbed sedimentary environment. The standard deviation (σ) ranges from 2.13 to 2.6, with all values above 1 indicating poorly sorted sediments within the silt range. The skewness (Sk) values range from 0.12 to 0.3, all positive, suggesting a relative dominance of coarse grains, though not excessive. The kurtosis (Kg) values range between 1.34 and 1.69, indicating that a significant proportion of the sediment is clustered near the mean grain size, and that the sediment source was stable. Overall, the sedimentary characteristics of the Huangshan canal section are consistent with a floodplain depositional environment.
The average grain size gradually decreases from the 14th to the 12th layers. The 13th layer exhibits the largest standard deviation (2.6) in the entire section, indicating poor sorting and a mixture of sediment sizes. Its lower kurtosis compared to other layers suggests a relatively dispersed grain-size distribution, implying rising water levels during this period. From the 11th to the 10th layers, the average grain size increases, forming an upward-coarsening sedimentary sequence. Compared to the 14th to the 12th layers, the skewness decreases significantly, while the kurtosis remains relatively unchanged, indicating more uniform sediment distribution and declining water levels during this phase.
The ninth layer shows the significantly smallest average grain size (5.63) in the section. Its high positive skewness suggests a notable substantial sandy component, while the kurtosis (1.61) is higher than in other layers, reflecting concentrated grain sizes. Macroscopically, the ninth layer is darker than the other layers, indicating a higher organic matter content. Its thin thickness and uneven top surface suggest deposition in a fluctuating water environment, consistent with rapid water level rise. From the eighth to the second layers, the grain size increases and fluctuates. Except for the fifth layer, the standard deviation remains relatively stable across these layers. The eighth layer has a significantly lower skewness (0.12), indicating more fine-grained silty components. The kurtosis gradually decreases, reflecting less concentrated grain sizes. However, from layer 4b to layer 2, the kurtosis gradually increases again, suggesting renewed grain-size concentration and continued stable floodplain deposition.

3.2. Pollen Analysis

A total of 32 genera (families) of pollen (including algae) and 15 genera (families) of woody plant pollen were identified in the river section of the Huangshan site. Based on the proportions of pollen from different species, the river canal section is divided into two zones and four subzones (Figure 4). Subzone I-1 comprises the 14th and 13th layers of the canal section. In this subzone, woody plant pollen accounts for 72.9%, while terrestrial herb pollen makes up 27.1%. In the 14th layer, Pinus dominates, representing 93% of the pollen, making it the absolute dominant species among trees and shrubs. In contrast, Poaceae (4%) and Concentricystes (15%) reflect a cool and dry climate. However, in the 13th layer, the proportion of Pinus decreases significantly to 41%, while Concentricystes increases sharply to 60%, a fourfold rise, indicating a shift to a warmer and more humid climate. Notably, the proportion of other woody plants does not increase significantly, but Poaceae jumps to 38%. This pattern suggests that while the climate became warmer and wetter, human activities during this period also intensified, potentially inhibiting the growth of woody plants.
Subzone I-2 comprises the 12th to the 5th layers of the canal section, with woody pollen accounting for 87.3% and upland herb pollen for 12.8%. Upland herbs are predominantly represented by Poaceae (8.3%), while aquatic herbs are minimal, suggesting a relatively dry climate. The consistently high and stable proportion of woody plants in this subzone reflects an overall stable climatic condition during this period. The dominance of Pinus indicates a generally cold climate, while the low content of temperate broad-leaved components suggests that deciduous broad-leaved forests were also present in the study area. The underrepresentation of deciduous broad-leaved plants in the pollen record may be attributed to the high pollen productivity and strong dispersal capacity of Pinus, which could mask the true abundance of deciduous broad-leaved taxa. In the 11th layer, Pinus reaches its highest proportion (97%), indicating the coldest climatic conditions compared to other periods.
Subzone II-1 includes layer 4b to layer 2 of the canal section, with the woody pollen content at 83.2% and upland herb pollen at 16.8%. The noticeable increase in aquatic herb pollen reflects the development of surrounding rivers and lakes, indicative of a more humid climate. In subzone II-2, the woody pollen content decreases significantly by 43.6%, while upland herb pollen surpasses woody plants at 56.4%. The decline in woody plant content suggests that vegetation in the study area was dominated by pine forests, with a reduction in deciduous broad-leaved forests. Conversely, the marked increase in upland herb content indicates a continued shift in the regional environment from warm and humid to cold and dry conditions since the onset of zone II.

3.3. Phytolith Analysis

A total of 9420 phytoliths and 28 morphological types were identified from the 15 samples analysed (Figure 5). Among these, three morphotypes were confirmed as crop-derived: double-peaked and bulliform phytoliths from rice, and η-type epidermal long cells from foxtail millet. Phytoliths such as square, rectangular, fan-shaped, bilobate, and saddle forms indicate relatively warm environments, while smooth–elongate, elongate echinate, acicular, wavy trapezoid, and rondel forms suggest relatively cold environments. Based on the phytolith assemblages, three zones were identified from the 14th to the 1st layers. The first zone (14th to 10th layers) is dominated by phytoliths indicative of relatively warm environments, accounting for 56.3%, while those indicating cold environments make up only 20.1%. Both rice and foxtail millet phytoliths are present in this zone but in relatively low proportions. The second zone (9th to 5th layers) shows a more balanced proportion of warm and cold phytolith types. However, this zone is marked by a significant increase in the abundance of rice and foxtail millet phytoliths, with rice phytoliths reaching their highest average proportion of 1.6%, indicating a peak in rice farming during this period. The third zone (4th to 1st layers) is characterised by a slight predominance of phytoliths, indicating relatively cold environments, ranging from 29.9% to 42.2%, while warm-type phytoliths decrease in proportion compared to the previous zones. Sponge spicules are present but rare in this zone. The phytolith assemblage suggests a shift toward dryland farming during this period.

4. Discussion

4.1. The Environmental Changes at Huangshan Site

Currently, the chronological framework for the canal section of the Huangshan site is still under development. It can be preliminarily determined that the 14th to 12th layers roughly correspond to the early, middle, and late phases of the Yangshao period, while the 11th to 10th layers approximately align with the Qujialing period. Based on grain-size analysis, the proportions of woody plants to upland herbs, the representation of cold- and warm-adapted plants in phytoliths, and the presence of rice and millet (Figure 5 and Figure 6), it is evident that rice farming at the Huangshan site exhibited a gradual upward trend beginning in the early Yangshao period, reaching a minor peak during the Qujialing period. In contrast, millet farming remained less intensive. From the Yangshao to the Qujialing periods, no large-scale climate fluctuations were observed, and the increase in herbaceous plants during the middle Yangshao period was primarily driven by a rise in grasses, reflecting the growing intensity of rice farming at the site.
Following the Qujialing period, a distinct flood event occurred at the Huangshan site, marked by a significant decrease in sediment grain size and an increase in mud content. Correspondingly, the climate cooled during this period, and the proportion of woody plants declined. However, this event does not appear to have disrupted rice farming, which continued to expand steadily since the Yangshao period.
The humid climate at the Huangshan site, coupled with the expansion of floodplains suitable for cultivation, created favourable conditions for rice farming, thereby mitigating the effects of the cooler climate. By the seventh layer, rice farming intensity reached its peak (Figure 5 and Figure 7). During this period, the sedimentary environment, vegetation, and climatic conditions at the Huangshan site in Nanyang were largely consistent with those of the Yangshao to Qujialing periods. Notably, the peak of rice farming (seventh layer) occurred after the warmest climatic phase (eighth layer), suggesting that climate was not the sole driver of agricultural patterns in the region (Figure 7).
Following this peak, the climate at the Huangshan site began to exhibit significant fluctuations, accompanied by changes in vegetation. During this stage, millet agriculture intensified, while rice farming gradually declined (Figure 7). The analysis of modern topsoil indicators reveals that the sediment primarily originates from riverbanks, with woody and herbaceous plants present in roughly equal proportions, indicating a cooler climate compared to the Yangshao to Qujialing periods. The intensity of rice farming during this time is comparable to that of the late Yangshao period, while millet farming remains relatively limited.

4.2. Rice Farming at the Huangshan Site

There is often a strong link between the emergence of agriculture and climatic conditions [17]. During the middle and late Neolithic period, the world experienced the Holocene warm period, characterised by a mild yet fluctuating climate [18,19]. The summer monsoon penetrated deep into the inland regions of the Chinese mainland [20], and the Holocene high-temperature period in China spanned approximately 8500 to 3000 years ago [20]. The Nanyang Basin, located in southwestern Henan Province, was also influenced by these climatic conditions. The vegetation during this period was lusher than today, as evidenced by the fact that phytoliths from warm-adapted plants in the 14th layer account for nearly 60% of the total, with arboreal phytoliths reaching 93% (Figure 5). These conditions provided a suitable environment for the development of rice farming. However, during the late Yangshao period, a cooling event occurred [21]. In the 13th layer of the canal section at the Huangshan site, there was a significant decrease in the number of trees and shrubs, alongside an increase in herbaceous plants. At the Gouwan site in Xichuan County, southwestern Henan Province, millet dominated during the Yangshao period, with the rice and millet proportions being similar, indicating a state of coexistence [22].
Around 5000 years ago, Yangshao culture in the Yellow River Basin declined, and Qujialing culture from the Han River Basin, a tributary of the Yangtze River, expanded northward [23]. The mixed farming of rice and millet had already flourished during the Yangshao period, and the rice farming had become more intense during the Qujialing period [24,25,26]. Evidence from the Qujialing, Huanglianshu, and Qinglongquan sites, where large quantities of rice husks and stem fragments were found in red clay deposits, indicates that Qujialing culture had fully mastered rice cultivation techniques [27]. This technological advancement enabled rice farming to keep flourishing at the Huangshan site during the Qujialing period.
The phytolith flotation results from the Baligang site in Dengzhou City reveal that the proportion of rice increased from 38.8% to 87.2%, while millet decreased from 28.1% to 10.7%, and other crops declined from 33.1% to 18.6% [28]. Additionally, the agricultural intensity at the Gowan site was relatively high, with rice farming emerging during the middle Yangshao period and peaking during the Qujialing period [29]. The Huangshan site showed a similar trend with these nearby contemporaneous sites (Figure 8). These findings suggest that rice farming was widespread among the Qujialing populations in southwestern Henan. In northern China, stone grinding discs and rods were typically used for processing millet in Neolithic millet agriculture [30], while rice farming in the Yangtze River Basin, represented by sites like Hemudu, utilised bone shovels (si, 耜) [31]. During the Yangshao period, stone shovels were rare [32], but by the Qujialing period, stone shovels used for rice farming were discovered [27]. Although no stone grinding discs were found at the Huangshan site, stone rakes and shovels were present, further indicating the prevalence of rice farming during the Qujialing period. These artefacts correspond to the 12th to 10th layers of the canal section, which also show an increasing proportion of rice phytoliths, warm-adapted phytoliths, and arboreal phytoliths. Even after the decline in Qujialing culture, rice farming in the region continued to expand.
During the Qujialing culture period, a significant cultural transition occurred in southwestern Henan. Archaeological evidence suggests that cultural characteristics from northern Hubei to the Nanyang Basin had largely adopted typical features of Qujialing culture by this time, indicating a large-scale cultural replacement process [23]. Subsequently, southwestern Henan became a frontier zone for interactions between Qujialing culture and the Central Plains’ cultural system. This cross-regional interaction exhibited a dual nature in its archaeological characteristics: while retaining the cultural traditions of the Jianghan Plain, it also incorporated elements from central Henan. The success of this cultural replacement may be closely tied to the region’s environmental carrying capacity, which was well-suited for rice farming. Pollen analysis from the Huangshan site indicates that warm and humid climatic conditions persisted during the northward expansion of Qujialing culture, providing essential subsistence support for this cultural diffusion. This environmental context allowed Qujialing culture to inherit and continue the jade processing activities previously associated with Yangshao culture in the area, ultimately establishing the Huangshan site as a regional centre for jade production. It should be noted that this study relies on the analysis results from only one section, and they are insufficient to fully represent the overall environment and rice cultivation conditions of the site, but they still shed new light on the rice cultivation and manufacture development in the Central Plain during the late Neolithic period.

5. Conclusions

Grain-size analysis, pollen analysis, and phytolith analysis were conducted on the river canal section of the Huangshan site in Nanyang. The results indicate that the floodplain area expanded during the Yangshao to Qujialing periods, while the climate gradually warmed, creating favourable conditions for vegetation growth and the development of rice farming. During this period, the proportion of rice in the river canal section of the Huangshan site steadily increased. This shift may be closely linked to the withdrawal of Yangshao culture, which was dominated by millet agriculture, from southwestern Henan Province, and the subsequent northward migration of Qujialing culture into the region. The suitable environmental conditions and the flourishing of rice farming provided a strong foundation for the development of manufacturing. Together with the unique resource of Dushan Jade, the Huangshan site became a significant Neolithic jade manufacturing centre in the Central Plains and the middle Yangtze River region.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, H.L.; methodology, H.L. and J.C.; investigation, H.L. and J.C.; data curation, H.L., J.C., J.-C.M. and K.L.; writing—original draft preparation, H.L. and J.C.; writing—review and editing, H.L., J.C., J.-C.M. and K.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Beijing Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. 2252038): “Research on data integration, knowledge graph and creative transformation of ancient Chinese jade and stone artifacts”.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Geographic location and field photo of the Huangshan site. (a) Location of the Huangshan site in Henan Province; (b) satellite image of the Huangshan site and its surrounding regions. Red rectangle, canal section at the Huangshan site; blue rectangle, Huangshan jade workshop ruins and graves of Qujialing culture; yellow line, Dushan; (c) enlarged view of the rectangular area in (a), highlighting the position of the Huangshan site in the southwestern part of Henan Province; (d) field photograph of the canal section at the Huangshan site.
Figure 1. Geographic location and field photo of the Huangshan site. (a) Location of the Huangshan site in Henan Province; (b) satellite image of the Huangshan site and its surrounding regions. Red rectangle, canal section at the Huangshan site; blue rectangle, Huangshan jade workshop ruins and graves of Qujialing culture; yellow line, Dushan; (c) enlarged view of the rectangular area in (a), highlighting the position of the Huangshan site in the southwestern part of Henan Province; (d) field photograph of the canal section at the Huangshan site.
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Figure 2. The canal section at the Huangshan site and the sampling locations.
Figure 2. The canal section at the Huangshan site and the sampling locations.
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Figure 3. Stratigraphy of the canal section at the Huangshan site and the soil sampling positions (left); analytical results of grain-size analysis (right).
Figure 3. Stratigraphy of the canal section at the Huangshan site and the soil sampling positions (left); analytical results of grain-size analysis (right).
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Figure 4. Percentage pollen diagram of selected taxa from the river section at the Huangshan site, with three parts delineated based on CONISS (constrained incremental sum of squares) analysis, with cluster analysis showing the similarity of the samples. The chart beside the histogram shows the proportion of tree and shrubs (red) and its general trend along the canal section (purple line), and the proportion of upland herbs (blue).
Figure 4. Percentage pollen diagram of selected taxa from the river section at the Huangshan site, with three parts delineated based on CONISS (constrained incremental sum of squares) analysis, with cluster analysis showing the similarity of the samples. The chart beside the histogram shows the proportion of tree and shrubs (red) and its general trend along the canal section (purple line), and the proportion of upland herbs (blue).
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Figure 5. Percentage phytolith diagram of selected taxa from the river section at the Huangshan site. Two distinct stages, representing Yangshao and Qujiangling periods, respectively, are identified based on CONISS (constrained incremental sum of squares) analysis. The chart beside the histogram shows the proportion of the warm type phytolith (red) and its general trend along the canal section (purple line), and the proportion of cold type phytolith (blue).
Figure 5. Percentage phytolith diagram of selected taxa from the river section at the Huangshan site. Two distinct stages, representing Yangshao and Qujiangling periods, respectively, are identified based on CONISS (constrained incremental sum of squares) analysis. The chart beside the histogram shows the proportion of the warm type phytolith (red) and its general trend along the canal section (purple line), and the proportion of cold type phytolith (blue).
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Figure 6. Part of the phytolith morphologies observed at the Huangshan site. (a–d) Rice bulliform; (e) fan-shaped; (f) square; (g) smooth–elongate; (h) fan-reed; (i) foxtail or common millet; (j) rectangle; (k) sinuate–elongate; (l) rice double-peaked.
Figure 6. Part of the phytolith morphologies observed at the Huangshan site. (a–d) Rice bulliform; (e) fan-shaped; (f) square; (g) smooth–elongate; (h) fan-reed; (i) foxtail or common millet; (j) rectangle; (k) sinuate–elongate; (l) rice double-peaked.
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Figure 7. Comprehensive diagram showing grain diameter, proportions of trees–shrubs and upland herbs, variations in warm- and cold-adapted vegetation, and the proportions of rice and millet.
Figure 7. Comprehensive diagram showing grain diameter, proportions of trees–shrubs and upland herbs, variations in warm- and cold-adapted vegetation, and the proportions of rice and millet.
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Figure 8. Percentage of rice and millet seeds from nearby contemporaneous sites. Green, millet; purple, rice. Data resources: Baligang is from [28]; Gowan is from [22].
Figure 8. Percentage of rice and millet seeds from nearby contemporaneous sites. Green, millet; purple, rice. Data resources: Baligang is from [28]; Gowan is from [22].
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Table 1. Samples for particle, pollen, and phytolith analysis at the canal section.
Table 1. Samples for particle, pollen, and phytolith analysis at the canal section.
Sample Number *LayerSample Location from the GroundDescription
NY-River 1-1, 1-2125 cmModern topsoil, 35 cm
NY-River 2-1, 2-22100 cmThick greyish-yellow soil, 75 cm
NY-River 3-1, 3-23125 cmMiddle greyish-white soil, 20 cm
NY-River 4a-1, 4a-24a150 cmMiddle greyish-white soil, 30 cm
NY-River 4b-1, 4b-24b175 cmMiddle greyish soil, 17 cm
NY-River 5-1, 5-25225 cmThick dark grey yellow soil, 60 cm
NY-River 6-1, 6-26245 cmThin dark grey yellow soil, 10 cm
NY-River 7-1, 7-27260 cmMiddle dark grey yellow soil, 20 cm
NY-River 8-1, 8-28285 cmMiddle greyish-white soil, 25 cm
NY-River 9-1, 9-29295 cmThin dark grey yellow soil, 5 cm
NY-River 10-1, 10-210320 cmMiddle greyish-white soil, yielded red buried soil, scattered grey pottery from Qujialing culture, 30 cm
NY-River 11-1, 11-211345 cmMiddle dark grey yellow soil, yielded red buried soil, stone chisels, and scattered grey pottery from Qujialing culture, 24 cm
NY-River 12-1, 12-212370 cmMiddle dark grey yellow soil, yielded red buried soil, stone chisels, fragments of Dushan Jades, and scattered red pottery from Yangshao culture, 26 cm
NY-River 13-1, 13-213395 cmMiddle greyish-yellow soil, yielded red buried soil, scattered stone tools, fragments of Dushan Jades, and scattered red pottery from Yangshao culture, 27 cm
NY-River 14-1, 14-214420 cmGreyish-yellow soil, yielded red buried soil, stone tools, fragments of Dushan Jades, quartz and other rocks, scattered red pottery from Yangshao culture. Bottom not exposed
* Samples ending with ‘-1’ were used for pollen and phytolith analysis, and samples ending with ‘-2’ were used for particle analysis.
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Lu, H.; Chai, J.; Ma, J.-C.; Liang, K. Paleoenvironmental Analysis and Rice Farming at the Huangshan Site, Central China. Heritage 2025, 8, 232. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060232

AMA Style

Lu H, Chai J, Ma J-C, Liang K. Paleoenvironmental Analysis and Rice Farming at the Huangshan Site, Central China. Heritage. 2025; 8(6):232. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060232

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lu, Hao, Jun Chai, Jun-Cai Ma, and Kun Liang. 2025. "Paleoenvironmental Analysis and Rice Farming at the Huangshan Site, Central China" Heritage 8, no. 6: 232. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060232

APA Style

Lu, H., Chai, J., Ma, J.-C., & Liang, K. (2025). Paleoenvironmental Analysis and Rice Farming at the Huangshan Site, Central China. Heritage, 8(6), 232. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8060232

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