Multi-Leaf Stone Masonry Walls in Egypt: A Legend
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Field Survey
2.1. Adopted Methodology
- (i)
- The relative thicknesses of the different layers;
- (ii)
- The ratio between the thicknesses of the inner layers and the total cross-section of the wall;
- (iii)
- The filling materials used to construct the inner core layer;
- (iv)
- The connectivity/constraints types between the inner and external layers;
- (v)
- The construction techniques of the multiple-leaf masonry wall.
2.2. Major Findings
2.2.1. Usage
2.2.2. Geometry
2.2.3. Typology
- Walls with straight collar joints, where the inner layer was not interconnected with the outer layer. Usually, the inner layer was constructed with an utterly cohesionless infill held by two separate external leaves, while the outer leaves were made of well-dressed limestone blocks with nearly uniform dimensions, ashlars limestone facing system, bonded in horizontal courses. Only a thin interface layer of mortar was found between the three layers (see Figure 5).
- Walls with keyed collar joints, where the external layer was built with ashlars limestone blocks with variable thickness, creating shear studs to ensure proper connectivity with the inner core infill (see Figure 6a–d).
- Walls with the transversal bond or tie elements in the cross-linking of the three layers by the use of either header stones (through stones), timber logs or circular marble elements; this ultimately ensured the composite behavior of the wall and enhanced the global performance with the applied external loads (see Figure 6e,f).
2.2.4. Constituent Materials
2.2.5. Characterization of the Inner and External Layers
2.2.6. Relative Thickness of the Layers
3. Construction Hypotheses of Multiple-Leaf Masonry Walls
3.1. Construction Hypothesis (I): Weak Inner Core
3.2. Construction Hypothesis (II): Monolithic Core Infill
3.3. Construction Hypothesis (III): Thick Core Infill
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Building | Monument Registration Number | Period | Type | Usage | Condition | Characteristics of Multiple Leaf Masonry Walls | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Structure Material | Wall Thickness | Width of Leaves | Leaves Ratio | Slenderness Ration (λ) | Core Ratio % | |||||||||
From | to | ext. | int. | int./ext. | int./W. | |||||||||
Bab Zuwayla | 199 | Fatimid (AD 969–1171) | Military | Gate | V. good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.2 | 5 | 0.20–0.25 | 1–4.6 | 5–20 | 3.5–10.0 | 83.3 | 92.0 |
Masjid al-Salih Tala’i’ | 116 | Religious | Masjid | Good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1 | 1.4 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.8–1 | 4–5 | 7.8–11 | 80.0 | 71.4 | |
Bab al-Mahruq | 307 | Ayyubid (AD 1171–1250) | Military | Tower | V. good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.8 | 2.5 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.4–2 | 2–8 | 4.7–8.0 | 50.0 | 80.0 |
North-eastern part of historic Cairo wall (Burj al-Zafar) | 307 | Military | Tower | Fair | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 4.1 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.2–3.6 | 1.0–15 | 3.0–8.0 | 33.3 | 87.8 | |
Qubba al-Imam al-Shafi’i | 281 | Funerary | Mausoleum | Fair | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 2.6 | 2.8 | 0.23–0.25 | 1.1–2.3 | 8.4–10 | 3.57–3.94 | 42.3 | 82.1 | |
Qasr al-Nassir Muhammad | 549 | Bahri Mamluk (AD 1250–1382) | Palatial | Palace | Ruins | Limestone, bricks, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.7 | 1.95 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.2–1.6 | 1.5–6.5 | 4.0–6.5 | 28.6 | 82.1 |
Khanqat Khawand Umm Anuk | 81 | Funerary | Mausoleum | Ruins | Limestone, bricks, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1 | 3 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.6–2.5 | 3–10 | 3.0–4.5 | 60.0 | 83.3 | |
Complex of Baybars al-Jashankir | 32 | Religious, Funerary | Mausoleum, Khanqah | Fair | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1 | 3.3 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.6–2.8 | 3–11.5 | 4.0–12.0 | 60.0 | 84.9 | |
Complex of Al-Sultan Hasan | 133 | Religious, Educational, Funerary | Masjid, Madrasa, Mausoleum | V. good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.2 | 5 | 0.20–0.30 | 0.8–4.5 | 4–18 | 6.5–20.5 | 66.7 | 90.0 | |
Qubba Al-Ashraf Khalil ibn Qalawun | 275 | Funerary | Mausoleum | Good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.4 | 1.9 | 0.20–0.25 | 1–1.4 | 5–7 | 5.3–7.2 | 71.4 | 73.7 | |
Complex of Al- Sultan Qalawun | 43 | Educational, Healthcare, Religious | Masjid, Hospital, Madrasa | V. good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.2 | 4.8 | 0.20–0.30 | 0.8–4.3 | 4–21 | 4.0–10.5 | 66.7 | 89.6 | |
Qubba Yunus al-Dawadar | 139 | Funerary | Mausoleum | Ruins | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.7 | 1.2 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.3–0.8 | 1.5–4 | – | 42.9 | 66.7 | |
Qasr al-Amir Qawsun | 266 | Palatial | Palace | Ruins | Limestone, bricks, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.1 | 4.4 | 0.20–0.35 | 0.4–2.2 | 2–8.5 | 4.0–11.0 | 36.4 | 50.0 | |
Amir Alin Aq Palace | 249 | Palatial | Palace | Good | Limestone, bricks, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.3 | 3 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.9–2.5 | 4.5–10 | 4.0–9.5 | 69.2 | 83.3 | |
Maq’ad al-Amir Mamay al-Sayfi | 51 | Circassian Mamluk (AD 1382–1517) | Residential | Shelter | Good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 1.8 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.2–1.4 | 1–7.0 | 10.0–30.0 | 33.3 | 77.8 |
Qubba al-Amir Tarabay al-Sharifi | 255 | Funerary | Mausoleum | V. good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.5 | 1.5 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.08–1.1 | 0.35–7.5 | 2.0–10.5 | 20.0 | 73.3 | |
Wakala al-Sultan Qaytbay | 75 | Commercial | Wikala | Partially collapsed | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.7 | 1.7 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.3–1.2 | 1.5–5 | 2.5–6.5 | 42.9 | 70.6 | |
Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Barsbay | 121 | Religious, Educational, Funerary | Khanqah, Madrasa, Mausoleum | Ruins | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 1.8 | 0.20–0.30 | 0.2–1.4 | 1–7 | 6.0–8.0 | 33.3 | 77.8 | |
Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Barsbay | 175 | Religious, Educational, Funerary, Waterworks | Masjid, Madrasa, Mausoleum, Sabil | Fair | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.9 | 3.9 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.5–3.4 | 2–13.5 | 3.5–13.0 | 55.6 | 87.2 | |
Complex of Sultan al-Ashraf Inal | 158 | Religious, Educational, Funerary | Masjid, Madrasa, Mausoleum | Partially collapsed | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.4 | 1.6 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.08–1.2 | 0.5–6.0 | 6.0–10.0 | 25.0 | 75.0 | |
The aqueduct (Majra Al-‘Uyun) | 78 | Waterworks | Aqueduct | Fair | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 2.9 | 3 | 0.25–0.35 | 2.3–2.5 | 7.5–10 | 4.5–6.2 | 79.3 | 83.3 | |
Bab Qaytbay | 278 | Military | Gate | Partially collapsed | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.7 | 6.75 | 0.20–0.30 | 0.3–6.25 | 12.5–25 | 1.0–4.0 | 42.9 | 92.6 | |
Masjid Bardbak (Umm al-Ghulam) | 25 | Religious | Masjid | Fair | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 1.1 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.2–0.7 | 1–3.5 | 8.0–10.0 | 33.3 | 63.6 | |
Complex of Sultan Qansuh al-Ghuri | 65–67 | Religious, Educational, Funerary | Masjid, Madrasa, Mausoleum | V. good | Limestone, bricks, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.8 | 2 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.4–1.4 | 2–4.5 | 8.0–17.5 | 50.0 | 70.0 | |
Complex of Sultan Qaytbay | 104 | Educational, Funerary, Waterworks | Madrasa, Mausoleum, Sabil | Ruins | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 1.6 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.2–1.1 | 1–4.5 | 6.0–13.5 | 33.3 | 68.8 | |
Aydakin al-Bunduqdari | 146 | Funerary, Religious | Mausoleum, Khanqah | Poor | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.2 | 2.8 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.8–2.3 | 4–9.2 | 5.5–8.5 | 66.7 | 82.1 | |
Complex of Sultan al-Mu’ayyad Shaykh | 190 | Religious, Educational, Funerary | Masjid, Madrasa, Mausoleum | Good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.9 | 4.5 | 0.20–0.25 | 1.5–4 | 7.5–18 | 5.2–8.5 | 79.0 | 88.9 | |
Sabil Ibrahim Agha Mustahfizan | 238 | Ottoman (AD 1517–1867) | Waterworks | Sabil | Fair | Limestone, bricks, lime-based mortar, Gypsum mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 1.5 | 0.15–0.20 | 0.2–1 | 1–4 | 3.0–10.0 | 33.3 | 66.7 |
Bab al-’Azab | 555 | Military | Tower | V. good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 1.2 | 2.5 | 0.22–0.25 | 0.7–2 | 3.2–8 | 6.5–11.5 | 58.3 | 80.0 | |
Bab of Ahmad Katkhuda | U93 | Military | Tower | Good | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 2.1 | 0.20–0.25 | 0.2–1.6 | 1–6.5 | 3.5–7.5 | 33.3 | 76.2 | |
Saray Al-Musafir khana | 20 | Palatial | Palace | Ruins | Limestone, bricks, lime-based mortar, Gypsum mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 1.5 | 0.15–0.25 | 0.3–1.1 | 1–5.5 | 6.0–12.0 | 50.0 | 73.3 | |
Takiyya Ibrahim al-Kulshani | 332 | Religious, Funerary | Mausoleum, Khanqah | Ruins | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.6 | 1.5 | 0.15–0.25 | 0.3–1 | 1–4 | 8.0–16.0 | 50.0 | 66.7 | |
Zawiya of ‘All al-Maghrabi | U4 | AD 1866 | Religious | Zawiya | Ruins | Limestone, lime-based mortar, rubble infill | 0.8 | 1.1 | 0.15–0.20 | 0.5–0.8 | 2–2.5 | 6.0–11.5 | 62.5 | 72.7 |
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Amer, O.; Aita, D.; Mohamed, E.k.; Torky, A.; Shawky, A. Multi-Leaf Stone Masonry Walls in Egypt: A Legend. Heritage 2021, 4, 2763-2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040156
Amer O, Aita D, Mohamed Ek, Torky A, Shawky A. Multi-Leaf Stone Masonry Walls in Egypt: A Legend. Heritage. 2021; 4(4):2763-2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040156
Chicago/Turabian StyleAmer, Osama, Danila Aita, Ezzeldin k. Mohamed, Akram Torky, and Ashraf Shawky. 2021. "Multi-Leaf Stone Masonry Walls in Egypt: A Legend" Heritage 4, no. 4: 2763-2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040156