Using KOCOA Military Terrain Analysis for the Assessment of Twentieth Century Battlefield Landscapes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Application of KOCOA and Its Theoretical Underpinning
2.1. Limitations of KOCOA
2.2. KOCOA and the Pacific Island War
3. Background on Kiska
What Is the Kiska Battlefield?
4. Applying KOCOA to the Kiska Situation
4.1. Phase II (Attack Phase)
Initial U.S. Response: The Kiska Blitz
- Warships in the harbor or en route, as they (a) were the most valuable naval asset to the Japanese and (b) could cause the most damage to Allied operations in the Pacific;
- Transport ships in the harbor, as they (a) carried supplies that had not been landed and (b) could be used to (re-)supply Kiska and other bases if they were allowed to sail;
- Installations and materiel already landed on Kiska.
4.2. KOCOA for Phase III (Occupation Period)
4.2.1. Responding to Airborne Threats
- purely aerial bombardment at low, medium, and high altitude, by long-range land-based bombers, with increasing frequency (under the assumption that additional airfields closer to Kiska may be built in due course);
- attacks by carrier-based dive bombers on land-based targets;
- attacks by carrier-based dive bombers and torpedo planes on shipping in the harbor; and
- attacks by carrier-based fighter aircraft against exposed personnel, equipment and minor installations.
4.2.2. Examining the Threats
4.2.3. Responding to Airborne Attacks
4.2.4. Types of AA Guns
13.2 mm Type 93 Light AA
25 mm Type 96 Twin-Barrelled Medium AA
75 mm Type 88 Heavy AA
120 mm Dual-Purpose Guns
4.2.5. Tactics
4.2.6. Structuring the AA Defenses
5. Hindcasting Command Decisions
5.1. Methodology
5.2. Implications
6. Implications for the Management of the Kiska NHL
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Battlefield Element | Definition | Examples |
---|---|---|
Key Terrain | A portion of the battlefield, possession of which gives an advantage to the possessor. | Road junctions, bridges, high ground. |
Observation and Fields of Fire | Any point on the landscape that allows observation of the movements, deployments, and activity of the enemy that is not necessarily key terrain, offers opportunity to see over an area and acquire targets, and allows flat-trajectory weapons to be brought to bear on the enemy. | High ground, sloping approaches to entrenched positions. |
Cover and Concealment | Landforms or landscape elements that provide protection from fire and hide troop positions from observation. | Walls, structures, forests, ravines, riverbanks, entrenchments, ditches. |
Obstacles | Landscape elements that hinder movement and affect the ultimate course of the battle. | Rivers, walls, dense vegetation, fortifications, ravines, ditches. |
Avenues of Approach | Corridors used to transfer troops between the core battle area and outer logistical areas. | Roads, paths, creek beds, railroads |
Phase | Japanese Developments | U.S. Response | Japanese Reaction |
---|---|---|---|
Phase I: Preparation phase | War threat developing in SE Asia | Establishment of a weather station on Kiska | Attack Preparations |
Phase II: Attack Phase | Invasion, development of Naval Installations in Kiska Harbor | Initial long-range bombing from Cold Bay & Umnak medium, later solely high altitude | Installation of initial AA batteries |
Phase III: Japanese Occupation Period | Japanese extend and strengthen Naval Installations in Kiska Harbor | Systematic long-range high altitude bombing from Umnak | Deployment of Nakajima A6M2-N floatplane fighters (‘Rufe’) Strengthening of heavy AA batteries |
Japanese establish Army garrison at Gertrude Cove | Systematic long-range high altitude bombing from Adak, some fighter escorts | Strengthening and repositioning of heavy AA batteries | |
Systematic short-range medium to low altitude bombing from Amchitka, regular fighter escorts | Repositioning of light and medium AA batteries | ||
Short-range dive bombing from Amchitka | n/a (Japanese had already left) | ||
Phase IV: Retaking | Japanese evacuate Kiska after Attu was retaken by U.S. forces | U.S. & Canadian forces landing unopposed | |
Phase V: Garrisoning | U.S. & Canadian forces dig in | ||
Phase VI: Abandonment | Canadian withdrawal U.S. withdrawal |
Location | Period | Distance to Kiska |
---|---|---|
Cold Bay | 11 Jun 42–??? | 840 m |
Umnak | 11 Jun–14 Sep 42 | 580 m |
Adak | 13 Sep 42–after U.S. landings on Kiska | 270 m |
Amchitka | 18 Feb 43–after U.S. landings on Kiska | 75 m |
Attu | 22 Jul 43–after U.S. landings on Kiska | 190 m |
Shemya | 28 Jul 43–after U.S. landings on Kiska | 215 m |
127 mm | 76 mm | 25 mm | 13.2 mm | 7.7 mm | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ship | Type 89 | 3rd Year | Type 96 | Type 93 | Type 92 |
CL-4 Tama | 2 × 1 | 2 × 2 | 6 × 1 | 2 × 1 | |
CL-6 Kiso | 2 × 1 | 2 × 2 | 6 × 1 | 2 × 1 | |
DD-55 Akatsuki | 3 × 2 | 2 × 2 | |||
DD-58 Hibiki | 3 × 2 | 2 × 2 | |||
DD-8 Shiokaze | 2 × 1 | ||||
DD-12 Hokaze | 2 × 1 | ||||
AV Kimikawa Maru | 2 × 1 | 2 × 1 | 2 × 2 | 2 × 1 | |
AC Asaka Maru | 2 × 2 | 1 × 4, 4 × 1 | |||
AC Awata Maru | 2 × 2 | 1 × 4, 4 × 1 | |||
AP Kumagawa Maru | 2 × 1 | ||||
AP Hakusan Maru | 2 × 1 ? | ||||
AM Hakuhō Maru | 2 × 1 ? | ||||
AM Kaihō Maru | 2 × 1 ? | ||||
AMShinkotsu Maru | 2 × 1 ? |
KOCOA | Japanese | U.S. Aircrew |
---|---|---|
Key Terrain/Decisive Terrain | harbour area (incl. ships) western shore of Kiska Harbor | harbour area (incl. ships) western shore of Kiska Harbor |
Observation and Fields of Fire | Kiska Harbor and nearby shore areas sall of Kiska (when Japanese aircraft were present) | all of Kiska (as attack is airborne) |
Concealment and Cover | cloud cover only (obscuring the island) underground shelters and caves for personnel (*) | cloud cover only (obscuring the target) |
Obstacles | nil | terrain limitations (e.g., Kiska Volcano) |
Avenues of Approach/Withdrawal | n/a | open sea, overland over centre of Kiska |
Caliber (mm) | Model | Mount | Mobile? | N° | Depression/Elevation | Rate of Fire (Rounds per Min) | Effective Ceiling (Ft) | Maximum Ceiling (Ft) | Weight of Round (Kg) | Types of Ammunition |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
13.2 | Type 93 | single | yes | 4 | −5°/85° | ~250 | 13,000 | 14,700 | 0.05 | ball, AP, I&T, HE |
13.2 | Type 93 | twin | yes | 14 | −5°/85° | ~500 | 13,000 | 14,700 | 0.05 | ball, AP, I&T, HE |
20 | Type 98 | single | yes | 15 | −5°/85° | ~120 | 5000 | 11,500 | 0.14 | AP, APT, HE, HET, HETSD, ITSD |
25 | Type 96 | twin | no | 10 | −10°/85° | ~220 | 9800 | 18,000 | 0.27 | AP, HE, HET, HETSD, ITSD |
75 | Type 88 | single | yes | 22 | 0°/85° | 17–20 | 16,400 | 35,800 | 6.53 | Type 90 AA HE |
120 | 10th Year | single | no | 4 | −5°/85° | 6–8 | 22,900 | 33,000 | 20.73 | HE |
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Spennemann, D.H. Using KOCOA Military Terrain Analysis for the Assessment of Twentieth Century Battlefield Landscapes. Heritage 2020, 3, 753-781. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage3030042
Spennemann DH. Using KOCOA Military Terrain Analysis for the Assessment of Twentieth Century Battlefield Landscapes. Heritage. 2020; 3(3):753-781. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage3030042
Chicago/Turabian StyleSpennemann, Dirk HR. 2020. "Using KOCOA Military Terrain Analysis for the Assessment of Twentieth Century Battlefield Landscapes" Heritage 3, no. 3: 753-781. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage3030042