Requiem for Olympic Ethics and Sports’ Independence
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methods: The Theoretical Framework
3. Methods: The Empirical Models
3.1. Poisson Analysis
3.2. Stochastic Frontier Analysis
3.3. Data Envelopment Analysis
4. Methods: The Dataset
5. Results
5.1. Poisson Analysis
5.2. Stochastic Frontier Analysis
5.3. Data Envelopment Analysis
6. Discussion
- SFA is applied by showing that the Poisson Model is incorrect.
- A panel data analysis at a country level is applied, by referring to the Olympic Games as a case study of global ethics in many sports.
- SFA is applied by showing that DEA is incomplete.
- Alternative governmental objectives and individual REL and SEC ethics are distinguished by estimating ∆G and ∆B together with GM, TM, and efficiency.
- It did not use a dummy variable for hosting countries to reduce possible biases in medals in favour of them (i.e., athletes in hosting countries can have greater access to Olympic fields, courts, rivers, …). However, SFA estimations provided in Supplementary Materials S3 show that this dummy variable is positively significant in 5 out of 10 cases, particularly if GM and ∆G are the sport achievements under consideration (i.e., 2 out of 3 and 2 out of 2, respectively) and if POLP is the adopted sport policy (i.e., 3 out of 4). In other words, it is easier for hosting countries to obtain national pride by winning the GM and the gold match finals.
- It did not use a time trend to avoid possible biases in favour of more recent sport achievements (i.e., the number of Olympic disciplines has increased over time). However, SFA estimations provided in Supplementary Materials S3 show that this time trend is negatively significant in 3 out of 10 cases, particularly if TM is the sport achievement under consideration (i.e., 2 out of 3). In other words, it is harder for original Olympic countries to win the same number of TM over time, due to the increasing number of Olympic countries.
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
N | LL | DF | AIC | BIC | AICc | CAIC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Table 4 | PA | GM | 2056 | −871.6335 | 9 | 1761.267 | 1811.924 | 1761.355 | 1820.924 |
Table 5 | PA | TM | 2182 | −2080.227 | 9 | 4178.454 | 4229.646 | 4178.537 | 4238.646 |
Table 6 | SFA | GM | 600 | −860.8691 | 12 | 1745.738 | 1798.501 | 1746.27 | 1810.501 |
Table 7 | SFA | TM | 850 | −1095.838 | 12 | 2215.676 | 2272.619 | 2216.049 | 2284.619 |
P > z | P List, Shaikh and Xu | P Bonferroni | P Holm | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Table 6 | αPOLP | 0.701 | 0.163 | 0.326 | 0.163 |
αPOLC | 0.000 | 0.090 | 0.094 | 0.094 | |
Table 7 | αPOLP | 0.501 | .044 | 0.089 | 0.044 |
αPOLC | 0.000 | .002 | 0.002 | 0.002 |
N | LL | DF | AIC | BIC | AICc | CAIC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Table 6 | GM | BOTH | 600 | −860.8691 | 12 | 1745.738 | 1798.501 | 1746.27 | 1810.501 |
Table 7 | TM | BOTH | 850 | −1095.838 | 12 | 2215.676 | 2272.619 | 2216.049 | 2284.619 |
Table 8 | GM | POLC | 600 | −856.8278 | 17 | 1747.656 | 1822.403 | 1748.707 | 1839.403 |
Table 9 | TM | POLC | 851 | −1093.036 | 17 | 2220.072 | 2300.761 | 2220.807 | 2317.761 |
Table 10 | ∆G | POLC | 312 | −488.9894 | 17 | 1011.979 | 1075.61 | 1014.06 | 1092.61 |
Table 11 | ∆B | POLC | 420 | −670.8647 | 17 | 1375.729 | 1444.414 | 1377.252 | 1461.414 |
Table 12 | GM | POLP | 600 | −902.743 | 17 | 1839.486 | 1914.234 | 1840.538 | 1931.234 |
Table 13 | TM | POLP | 850 | −1255.018 | 17 | 2544.036 | 2624.705 | 2544.772 | 2641.705 |
Table 14 | ∆G | POLP | 312 | −492.8417 | 17 | 1019.683 | 1083.314 | 1021.765 | 1100.314 |
Table 15 | ∆B | POLP | 419 | −675.6865 | 17 | 1385.373 | 1454.017 | 1386.899 | 1471.017 |
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Governmental Objectives | (Output) Indexes | (Input) Variables | Methods | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POL | GDP | HLEB | INE | REL | SEC | |||
National pride | Lexicographic GM | +/− | + | +/− | +/− | − | + | Poisson Analysis SFA |
Social cohesion | Sum TM = GM + SM + BM | +/− | + | +/− | +/− | − | + | Poisson Analysis SFA |
Social ethics | ∆G = GM − SM, ∆B = BM − WM | +/− | + | +/− | +/− | − | + | SFA |
National efficiency | μ (inefficiency) θ (efficiency) θ (efficiency) θ (efficiency) | +/− | + | +/− | SFA with CM DEA Lexicographic DEA Sum MO DEA G, S, B |
Name | Meaning | Unit | Mean | SD | MAX | MIN |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GM | Gold Medals | N | 10.90 | 10.75 | 163 | 0 |
SM | Silver Medals | N | 9.91 | 9.05 | 110 | 0 |
BM | Bronze Medals | N | 9.70 | 8.85 | 96 | 0 |
WM | Wood Medals | N | 9.41 | 7.35 | 60 | 0 |
TM | Total Medals | N | 23.15 | 14.38 | 323 | 0 |
DIRcon | Athletes in direct games with contact | N | 8.21 | 7.87 | 56 | 0 |
IND | Athletes in indirect games | N | 20.53 | 25.47 | 161 | 0 |
DIRtea | Athletes in direct games in teams | N | 37.91 | 30.18 | 274 | 0 |
DIR | Athletes in direct games | N | 34.93 | 56.48 | 462 | 0 |
POLP | A qualitative policy aimed at national pride | Variation’s coefficient of athletes across disciplines | 1.37 | 0.60 | 2 | 0 |
POLC | A quantitative policy aimed at social cohesion | Total number of athletes across disciplines | 61.55 | 66.34 | 856 | 1 |
GDP | Gross Domestic Product | Current Thousand USD | 15,897 | 24,140 | 208,835 | 337 |
BUD | Believers in Buddhism | % | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.87 | 0.00 |
CHR | Believers in Christianity | % | 0.57 | 0.39 | 0.99 | 0.00 |
HIN | Believers in Hinduism | % | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.74 | 0.00 |
ISL | Believers in Islam | % | 0.31 | 0.34 | 1.00 | 0.00 |
JUD | Believers in Judaism | % | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.74 | 0.00 |
REL | Sum of believers | % | 0.86 | 0.35 | 1.01 | 0.00 |
SEC | Sum of gross enrolment rates | % | 0.73 | 0.32 | 1.27 | 0.00 |
GEP | Primary Gross Enrolment Rates | % | 1.01 | 0.38 | 1.52 | 0.00 |
GES | Secondary Gross Enrolment Rates | % | 0.82 | 0.41 | 1.63 | 0.00 |
GET | Tertiary Gross Enrolment Rates | % | 0.39 | 0.30 | 1.50 | 0.00 |
HLEB | Healthy Life Expectancy at Birth | Years | 62.84 | 24.69 | 76.95 | 46.50 |
INE | Inequality | Gini Index in [0, 1] | 0.38 | 0.16 | 0.65 | 0.24 |
POP | Population | Million | 41 | 153 | 1423 | 0 |
GM | TM | ∆G | ∆B | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Poisson Analysis | Both POL, REL, SEC | Table 4 | Table 5 | NO | NO |
SFA | Both POL, REL, SEC | Table 6 | Table 7 | NO | NO |
POLC, specific REL and SEC | Table 8 | Table 9 | Table 10 | Table 11 | |
POLP, specific REL and SEC | Table 12 | Table 13 | Table 14 | Table 15 | |
Specific sports, REL and SEC | Table S1.1 | Table S1.2 | Table S1.3 | Table S1.4 | |
Both POL, REL, SEC with country dummies | Table S2.1 Figure 1 | Table S2.2 Figure 2 | NO | NO | |
DEA | Both POL, REL, SEC * | Table 18 | Table 18 | NO | NO |
GM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POLP | −1.052973 | 0.2145596 | −4.91 | 0.000 | −1.473502 | −0.632444 |
POLC | 0.0060181 | 0.0006146 | 9.79 | 0.000 | 0.0048135 | 0.0072227 |
GDP | 0.004503 | 0.0041368 | 1.09 | 0.276 | −0.0036049 | 0.012611 |
HLEB | −0.0479397 | 0.0135697 | −3.53 | 0.000 | −0.0745357 | −0.0213437 |
INE | −2.890346 | 0.845927 | −3.42 | 0.001 | −4.548332 | −1.232359 |
REL | −0.8995767 | 0.9050115 | −0.99 | 0.320 | −2.673367 | 0.8742134 |
SEC | 2.290174 | 0.4308072 | 5.32 | 0.000 | 1.445807 | 30.134541 |
CONS | 1.760798 | 0.4708235 | 3.74 | 0.000 | 0.8380006 | 2.683595 |
TM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
POLP | −1.927409 | 0.1185815 | −16.25 | 0.000 | −2.159824 | −1.694993 |
POLC | 0.0037032 | 0.0003383 | 10.95 | 0.000 | 0.0030402 | 0.0043663 |
GDP | 0.013201 | 0.0020438 | 6.46 | 0.000 | 0.0091953 | 0.0172067 |
HLEB | −0.042049 | 0.0080627 | −5.22 | 0.000 | −0.0578517 | −0.0262463 |
INE | 1.582327 | 0.5947053 | 2.66 | 0.008 | 0.4167257 | 2.747928 |
REL | −0.2516634 | 0.4606511 | −0.55 | 0.585 | −1.154523 | 0.6511962 |
SEC | −0.7866766 | 0.231724 | −3.39 | 0.001 | −1.240847 | −0.332506 |
CONS | 4.228967 | 0.3516833 | 12.02 | 0.000 | 3.53968 | 4.918253 |
LnGM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLP | −0.0631834 | 0.1647541 | −0.38 | 0.701 | −0.3860956 | 0.2597288 |
LnPOLC | 0.8035904 | 0.0715256 | 11.24 | 0.000 | 0.6634028 | 0.943778 |
GDP | 0.0071388 | 0.0040026 | 1.78 | 0.074 | −0.0007061 | 0.0149838 |
HLEB | −0.0595245 | 0.012079 | −4.93 | 0.000 | −0.0831989 | −0.03585 |
INE | −1.62768 | 0.8402739 | −1.94 | 0.053 | −3.274586 | 0.0192268 |
REL | 0.309063 | 0.6755196 | 0.46 | 0.647 | −1.014931 | 1.633057 |
SEC | −0.4225808 | 0.5338317 | −0.79 | 0.429 | −1.468872 | 0.6237101 |
CONS | 1.936699 | 0.5175806 | 3.74 | 0.000 | 0.9222598 | 2.951139 |
LnTM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLP | −0.0757133 | 0.1126301 | −0.67 | 0.501 | −0.2964643 | 0.1450377 |
LnPOLC | 1.080757 | 0.0507508 | 21.30 | 0.000 | 0.9812878 | 1.180227 |
GDP | 0.0020253 | 0.0030517 | 0.66 | 0.507 | −0.0039558 | 0.0080065 |
HLEB | −0.0470824 | 0.0085301 | −5.52 | 0.000 | −0.063801 | −0.0303637 |
INE | −2.191615 | 0.6757723 | −3.24 | 0.001 | −3.516104 | −0.8671255 |
REL | 0.1670622 | 0.3877792 | 0.43 | 0.667 | −0.5929711 | 0.9270956 |
SEC | −0.3447763 | 0.3543987 | −0.97 | 0.331 | −1.039385 | 0.3498325 |
CONS | 3.467591 | 1.355319 | 2.56 | 0.011 | 0.8112147 | 6.123968 |
LnGM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLC | 0.7969784 | 0.0668581 | 11.92 | 0.000 | 0.665939 | 0.9280179 |
GDP | 0.0074025 | 0.0042357 | 1.75 | 0.081 | −0.0008992 | 0.0157042 |
HLEB | −0.0422096 | 0.0124041 | −3.40 | 0.001 | −0.0665211 | −0.0178981 |
INE | −1.519087 | 0.8829199 | −1.72 | 0.085 | −3.249578 | 0.2114044 |
BUD | −2.335897 | 1.467871 | −1.59 | 0.112 | −5.21287 | 0.5410772 |
CHR | −0.244377 | 0.5193302 | −0.47 | 0.638 | −1.262246 | 0.7734915 |
HIN | −4.407507 | 2.399516 | −1.84 | 0.066 | −9.110473 | 0.2954589 |
JUD | −0.489474 | 2.438828 | −0.20 | 0.841 | −5.26949 | 4.290542 |
ISL | −0.4628366 | 0.6683368 | −0.69 | 0.489 | −1.772753 | 0.8470795 |
GEP | −1.024038 | 0.5456254 | −1.88 | 0.061 | −2.093445 | 0.0453677 |
GES | 0.5068159 | 0.3652917 | 1.39 | 0.165 | −0.2091427 | 1.222775 |
GET | −0.3317227 | 0.3147018 | −1.05 | 0.292 | −0.9485269 | 0.2850816 |
CONS | 2.454906 | 0.7945102 | 3.09 | 0.002 | 0.897695 | 4.012118 |
LnTM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLC | 1.076801 | 0.0459594 | 23.43 | 0.000 | 0.9867223 | 1.16688 |
GDP | 0.002712 | 0.0030984 | 0.88 | 0.381 | −0.0033608 | 0.0087848 |
HLEB | −0.0478129 | 0.008295 | −5.76 | 0.000 | −0.0640708 | −0.0315551 |
INE | −2.137235 | 0.6913677 | −3.09 | 0.002 | −3.49229 | −0.7821788 |
BUD | −1.816415 | 1.292973 | −1.40 | 0.160 | −4.350594 | 0.7177646 |
CHR | 0.485466 | 0.3727509 | 1.30 | 0.193 | -.2451123 | 1.216044 |
HIN | −2.437135 | 1.696278 | −1.44 | 0.151 | −5.76178 | 0.8875094 |
JUD | 0.1867473 | 2.42909 | 0.08 | 0.939 | −4.574182 | 4.947677 |
ISL | −0.276669 | 0.4429708 | −0.62 | 0.532 | −1.144876 | 0.5915378 |
GEP | −0.3369614 | 0.316855 | −1.06 | 0.288 | −0.9579858 | 0.284063 |
GES | 0.0943682 | 0.2712577 | 0.35 | 0.728 | −0.4372872 | 0.6260236 |
GET | −0.0686011 | 0.2376173 | −0.29 | 0.773 | −0.5343226 | 0.3971203 |
CONS | 3.246901 | 1.541985 | 2.11 | 0.035 | 0.2246664 | 6.269136 |
Ln∆G | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLC | 0.3916915 | 0.0964504 | 4.06 | 0.000 | 0.2026523 | 0.5807307 |
GDP | 0.0087758 | 0.0059738 | 1.47 | 0.142 | −0.0029326 | 0.0204843 |
HLEB | −0.0495588 | 0.0154762 | −3.20 | 0.001 | −0.0798917 | −0.0192259 |
INE | −1.059379 | 1.140695 | −0.93 | 0.353 | −3.2951 | 1.176342 |
BUD | −3.122778 | 1.588258 | −1.97 | 0.049 | −6.235705 | −0.0098499 |
CHR | 0.0839187 | 0.5816482 | 0.14 | 0.885 | −1.056091 | 1.223928 |
HIN | −3.672102 | 2.354621 | −1.56 | 0.119 | −8.287075 | 0.9428711 |
JUD | −0.0642354 | 2.20858 | −0.03 | 0.977 | −4.392972 | 4.264501 |
ISL | −0.434702 | 0.6512745 | −0.67 | 0.504 | −1.711177 | 0.8417726 |
GEP | −0.5452943 | 0.7453215 | −0.73 | 0.464 | −2.006098 | 0.9155089 |
GES | 1.083108 | 0.4886733 | 2.22 | 0.027 | 0.1253255 | 2.04089 |
GET | −0.1239401 | 0.5536306 | −0.22 | 0.823 | −1.209036 | 0.961156 |
CONS | 2.489042 | 1.197796 | 2.08 | 0.038 | 0.141406 | 4.836679 |
Ln∆B | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLC | 0.4142682 | 0.0986616 | 4.20 | 0.000 | 0.2208949 | 0.6076414 |
GDP | 0.0100038 | 0.005307 | 1.89 | 0.059 | −0.0003977 | 0.0204053 |
HLEB | −0.02628 | 0.0141699 | −1.85 | 0.064 | −0.0540526 | 0.0014926 |
INE | −2.552232 | 1.218396 | −2.09 | 0.036 | −4.940244 | −0.1642198 |
BUD | −0.8912892 | 1.191349 | −0.75 | 0.454 | −3.226289 | 1.443711 |
CHR | 0.3014565 | 0.562705 | 0.54 | 0.592 | −0.8014251 | 1.404338 |
HIN | −0.190077 | 2.093201 | −0.09 | 0.928 | −4.292675 | 3.912521 |
JUD | −0.1641036 | 1.537227 | −0.11 | 0.915 | −3.177014 | 2.848806 |
ISL | −0.8846979 | 0.6109603 | −1.45 | 0.148 | −2.082158 | 0.3127623 |
GEP | −0.4598344 | 0.6704948 | −0.69 | 0.493 | −1.77398 | 0.8543112 |
GES | 0.1021834 | 0.5052279 | 0.20 | 0.840 | −0.888045 | 1.092412 |
GET | −0.7876696 | 0.4401333 | −1.79 | 0.074 | −1.650315 | 0.0749758 |
CONS | 1.566795 | 0.5519683 | 2.84 | 0.005 | 0.4849572 | 2.648633 |
LnGM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLP | −0.8480162 | 0.1630012 | −5.20 | 0.000 | −1.167493 | −0.5285397 |
GDP | 0.0112822 | 0.0046733 | 2.41 | 0.016 | 0.0021228 | 0.0204416 |
HLEB | −0.0243853 | 0.0121951 | −2.00 | 0.046 | −0.0482871 | −0.0004834 |
INE | −1.521517 | 0.971031 | −1.57 | 0.117 | −3.424703 | 0.3816687 |
BUD | −3.225854 | 1.320531 | −2.44 | 0.015 | −5.814048 | −0.6376606 |
CHR | −0.6418675 | 0.5311708 | −1.21 | 0.227 | −1.682943 | 0.3992082 |
HIN | −5.480561 | 1.982397 | −2.76 | 0.006 | −9.365989 | −1.595134 |
JUD | −1.424875 | 2.036209 | −0.70 | 0.484 | −5.41577 | 2.566021 |
ISL | −1.905965 | 0.6042405 | −3.15 | 0.002 | −3.090255 | −0.7216758 |
GEP | −0.9829314 | 0.5885843 | −1.67 | 0.095 | −2.136535 | 0.1706725 |
GES | 0.8647746 | 0.3981995 | 2.17 | 0.030 | 0.0843179 | 1.645231 |
GET | −0.3374533 | 0.3495964 | −0.97 | 0.334 | −1.02265 | 0.3477431 |
CONS | 6.90594 | 2.131187 | 3.24 | 0.001 | 2.72889 | 11.08299 |
LnTM | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLP | −1.106323 | 0.1284515 | −8.61 | 0.000 | −1.358084 | −0.8545632 |
GDP | 0.0093105 | 0.0038425 | 2.42 | 0.015 | 0.0017793 | 0.0168417 |
HLEB | −0.0230514 | 0.0085382 | −2.70 | 0.007 | −0.0397859 | −0.0063169 |
INE | −2.378538 | 0.8423017 | −2.82 | 0.005 | −4.029419 | −0.7276569 |
BUD | −2.566834 | 1.129472 | −2.27 | 0.023 | −4.780558 | −0.3531098 |
CHR | −0.0604462 | 0.4314735 | −0.14 | 0.889 | −0.9061187 | 0.7852263 |
HIN | −4.090967 | 1.557554 | −2.63 | 0.009 | −7.143717 | −1.038217 |
JUD | −0.6564802 | 1.962348 | −0.33 | 0.738 | −4.502612 | 3.189652 |
ISL | −1.927665 | 0.4552839 | −4.23 | 0.000 | −2.820005 | −1.035325 |
GEP | −0.3361217 | 0.390846 | −0.86 | 0.390 | −1.102166 | 0.4299224 |
GES | 0.6994061 | 0.3333105 | 2.10 | 0.036 | 0.0461294 | 1.352683 |
GET | −0.1863106 | 0.3111 | −0.60 | 0.549 | −0.7960554 | 0.4234341 |
CONS | 9.896447 | 14.90719 | 0.66 | 0.507 | −19.3211 | 39.11399 |
Ln∆G | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLP | −0.5911708 | 0.2476905 | −2.39 | 0.017 | −1.076635 | −0.1057063 |
GDP | 0.011522 | 0.0057589 | 2.00 | 0.045 | 0.0002348 | 0.0228092 |
HLEB | −0.0430776 | 0.0151426 | −2.84 | 0.004 | −0.0727566 | −0.0133986 |
INE | −1.165642 | 1.1413 | −1.02 | 0.307 | −3.402549 | 1.071265 |
BUD | −3.006029 | 1.405671 | −2.14 | 0.032 | −5.761094 | −0.2509643 |
CHR | −0.0428012 | 0.5789178 | −0.07 | 0.941 | −1.177459 | 1.091857 |
HIN | −4.012181 | 2.060582 | −1.95 | 0.052 | −8.050849 | 0.026486 |
JUD | −0.40927 | 1.969264 | −0.21 | 0.835 | −4.268956 | 3.450416 |
ISL | −0.987921 | 0.635373 | −1.55 | 0.120 | −2.233229 | 0.2573873 |
GEP | −0.7573014 | 0.7528087 | −1.01 | 0.314 | −2.232779 | 0.7181765 |
GES | 1.240119 | 0.487921 | 2.54 | 0.011 | 0.2838111 | 2.196426 |
GET | 0.1578792 | 0.5596675 | 0.28 | 0.778 | −0.9390489 | 1.254807 |
CONS | 11.45472 | 7.713835 | 1.48 | 0.138 | −3.664122 | 26.57356 |
Ln∆B | Coefficient | Std. Err. | z | P > z | [95% Conf. | Interval] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LnPOLP | −0.4441602 | 0.2117808 | −2.10 | 0.036 | −0.8592429 | −0.0290774 |
GDP | 0.0130238 | 0.0055322 | 2.35 | 0.019 | 0.002181 | 0.0238666 |
HLEB | −0.0170013 | 0.0139894 | −1.22 | 0.224 | −0.04442 | 0.0104173 |
INE | −2.683202 | 1.235406 | −2.17 | 0.030 | −5.104552 | −0.2618518 |
BUD | −1.40082 | 1.189057 | −1.18 | 0.239 | −3.731329 | 0.9296888 |
CHR | 0.0982408 | 0.5721448 | 0.17 | 0.864 | −1.023142 | 1.219624 |
HIN | −1.43416 | 2.08493 | −0.69 | 0.492 | −5.520548 | 2.652228 |
JUD | −0.4020886 | 1.435406 | −0.28 | 0.779 | −3.215433 | 2.411256 |
ISL | −10.578177 | 0.5862269 | −2.69 | 0.007 | −2.727161 | −0.4291934 |
GEP | −0.4684707 | 0.7045606 | −0.66 | 0.506 | −1.849384 | 0.9124427 |
GES | 0.3786361 | 0.5196462 | 0.73 | 0.466 | −0.6398516 | 1.397124 |
GET | −0.9586332 | 0.446888 | −2.15 | 0.032 | −1.834518 | −0.0827489 |
CONS | 2.665301 | 0.5044886 | 5.28 | 0.000 | 1.676522 | 3.65408 |
Table 8 | Table 9 | Table 12 | Table 13 | Sum | Sum | Sum | Sum | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GM and POLC | TM and POLC | GM and POLP | TM and POLP | GM | TM | POLC | POLP | |
BUD | 0 | 0 | N | N | N | N | 0 | NN |
CHR | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
HIN | N | 0 | N | N | NN | N | N | NN |
JUD | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
ISL | 0 | 0 | N | N | N | N | 0 | NN |
GEP | N | 0 | N | 0 | NN | 0 | N | NN |
GES | 0 | 0 | P | P | P | P | 0 | PP |
GET | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
POLP | N | N | N | N | NN | |||
POLC | P | P | P | P | PP | |||
GDP | P | 0 | P | P | PP | P | P | PP |
HLEB | N | N | N | N | NN | NN | NN | NN |
INE | N | N | 0 | N | N | NN | NN | N |
CouNam | CouCod | CouNum | GOLD | Rank | TOTAL | Rank | ∆GOLD | Rank | ∆BRONZE | Rank |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
United States | USA | 252 | 1102 | 1 | 2451 | 1 | 0.15 | 2 | 0.08 | 5 |
Russian Federation | RUS | 201 | 463 | 2 | 1388 | 2 | −0.02 | 9 | 0.03 | 8 |
Germany | DEU | 87 | 442 | 3 | 1257 | 3 | 0.05 | 3 | 0.06 | 6 |
China | CHN | 45 | 404 | 4 | 1051 | 4 | 0.03 | 5 | −0.03 | 11 |
Canada | CAN | 37 | 304 | 5 | 876 | 6 | 0.04 | 4 | 0.02 | 9 |
Australia | AUS | 12 | 272 | 6 | 1025 | 5 | −0.06 | 10 | 0.18 | 2 |
France | FRA | 82 | 248 | 7 | 755 | 7 | −0.01 | 8 | −0.01 | 10 |
Netherlands | NLD | 172 | 236 | 8 | 641 | 10 | 0.01 | 7 | −0.09 | 13 |
United Kingdom | GBR | 251 | 214 | 9 | 635 | 11 | 0.03 | 6 | 0.04 | 7 |
Norway | NOR | 181 | 198 | 10 | 476 | 13 | 0.17 | 1° | 0.10 | 3 |
Korea | KOR | 125 | 188 | 11 | 547 | 12 | −0.08 | 11 | 0.25 | 1 * |
Japan | JPN | 119 | 187 | 12 | 656 | 9 | −0.08 | 12 | −0.08 | 12 |
Italy | ITA | 117 | 170 | 13 | 702 | 8 | −0.09 | 13 | 0.09 | 4 |
GM | θ | Rank | Dummy | Rank | POLP | POLC | GDP | HLEB | INE | REL | SEC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
USA | 0.501 | 3 | −1.88 | 3 | 0.175 | 2.172 | 12.091 | 8.731 | 0.051 | 0.085 | 0.114 | |||
RUS | 0.659 | 2 | −1.57 | 2 | 0.183 | 4.834 | 1.998 | 8.372 | 0.052 | 0.118 | 0.138 | |||
DEU | 0.809 | 1 | −0.54 | 1 | 0.029 | 6.955 | 1.282 | 2.131 | 0.008 | 0.033 | 0.024 | |||
Mean | 0.656 | 0.129 | 4.654 | 5.124 | 6.411 | 0.037 | 0.079 | 0.092 | ||||||
TM | θ | Rank | Dummy | Rank | POLP | POLC | GDP | HLEB | INE | REL | SEC | |||
USA | 0.689 | 3 | −3.00 | 3 | 0.209 | 13.255 | 13.170 | 12.539 | 0.075 | 0.148 | 0.177 | |||
RUS | 0.731 | 1 | −2.67 | 2 | 0.252 | 2.609 | 4.682 | 15.766 | 0.000 | 0.092 | 0.231 | |||
DEU | 0.721 | 2 | −2.00 | 1 | 0.099 | 21.332 | 3.013 | 7.849 | 0.032 | 0.101 | 0.098 | |||
Mean | 0.713 | 0.187 | 12.398 | 6.955 | 12.051 | 0.036 | 0.114 | 0.168 | ||||||
MULTI | θ | Rank | POLP | POLC | GDP | HLEB | INE | REL | SEC | GM | SM | BM | ||
USA | 0.820 | 3 | 0.109 | 13.257 | 8.286 | 4.797 | 0.029 | 0.065 | 0.070 | 0.018 | 0.025 | 0.007 | ||
RUS | 0.824 | 2 | 0.116 | 2.199 | 2.206 | 8.298 | 0.055 | 0.126 | 0.140 | 0.020 | 0.041 | 0.019 | ||
DEU | 0.855 | 1 | 0.080 | 8.284 | 3.780 | 4.418 | 0.020 | 0.060 | 0.053 | 0.032 | 0.082 | 0.088 | ||
Mean | 0.101 | 7.913 | 4.757 | 5.838 | 0.035 | 0.084 | 0.088 | 0.023 | 0.049 | 0.038 |
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Zagonari, F. Requiem for Olympic Ethics and Sports’ Independence. Stats 2025, 8, 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/stats8030067
Zagonari F. Requiem for Olympic Ethics and Sports’ Independence. Stats. 2025; 8(3):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/stats8030067
Chicago/Turabian StyleZagonari, Fabio. 2025. "Requiem for Olympic Ethics and Sports’ Independence" Stats 8, no. 3: 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/stats8030067
APA StyleZagonari, F. (2025). Requiem for Olympic Ethics and Sports’ Independence. Stats, 8(3), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/stats8030067