History of Non-Fatal Physical Assault Is Associated with Premature Mortality for Whites but Not Blacks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Objectives
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Sampling and Participants
2.3. Measures
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Cox Regressions in the Pooled Sample
3.3. Cox Regressions in Whites and Blacks
4. Discussion
4.1. Implications
4.2. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Informed Consent
Compliance with Ethical Standards
References
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All (n = 3617) | Whites (n = 2205) | Blacks (n = 1156) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SE) | 95% CIs | Mean (SE) | 95% CIs | Mean (SE) | 95% CIs | |
Age | 47.77 (0.534) | 46.69–48.84 | 47.96 (0.601) | 46.75–49.17 | 46.33 (0.717) | 44.89–47.78 |
Education * | 12.53 (0.096) | 12.34–12.73 | 12.69 (0.105) | 12.48–12.90 | 11.37 (0.233) | 10.90–11.84 |
Income * | 5.41 (0.093) | 5.22–5.60 | 5.57 (0.101) | 5.36–5.77 | 4.25 (0.183) | 3.88–4.62 |
Depressive Symptoms * | –0.03 (0.025) | –0.08–0.02 | –0.07 (0.025) | –0.13–0.02 | 0.28 (0.051) | 0.18–0.38 |
Chronic Medical Conditions * | 0.79 (0.028) | 0.74–0.85 | 0.78 (0.031) | 0.71–0.84 | 0.91 (0.052) | 0.81–1.02 |
Self-Rate Health * | 2.30 (0.024) | 2.25–2.35 | 2.28 (0.026) | 2.23–2.33 | 2.43 (0.054) | 2.32–2.54 |
Body Mass Index * | 25.54 (0.11) | 25.32–25.75 | 25.34 (0.12) | 25.11–25.58 | 26.94 (0.20) | 26.53–27.34 |
% (SE) | 95% CIs | % (SE) | 95% CIs | % (SE) | 95% CIs | |
Gender | ||||||
Male | 47.26 (0.012) | 44.86–49.68 | 47.82 (0.013) | 45.12–50.52 | 43.18 (0.022) | 38.79–47.69 |
Female | 52.74 (0.012) | 50.32–55.14 | 52.18 (0.013) | 49.48–54.88 | 56.82 (0.022) | 52.31–61.21 |
Self-Rate Health * | ||||||
Good-Excellent | 85.06 (0.008) | 83.33–86.64 | 85.97 (0.009) | 84.15–87.60 | 78.38 (0.017) | 74.68–81.68 |
Poor-Fair | 14.94 (0.008) | 13.36–16.67 | 14.03 (0.009) | 12.40–15.85 | 21.62 (0.017) | 18.32–25.32 |
Smoking * | ||||||
No | 69.59 (0.01) | 66.83–72.23 | 70.35 (0.01) | 67.34–73.19 | 64.05 (0.03) | 58.54–69.21 |
Yes | 30.41 (0.01) | 27.77–33.17 | 29.65 (0.01) | 26.81–32.66 | 35.95 (0.03) | 30.79–41.46 |
Drinking * | ||||||
No | 39.98 (0.02) | 36.73–43.33 | 38.49 (0.02) | 35.15–41.95 | 50.93 (0.03) | 45.37–56.47 |
Yes | 60.02 (0.02) | 56.67–63.27 | 61.51 (0.02) | 58.05–64.85 | 49.07 (0.03) | 43.53–54.63 |
History of Non-Fatal Physical Assault | ||||||
No | 97.38 (0.00) | 96.45–98.07 | 97.42 (0.00) | 96.32–98.20 | 97.06 (0.01) | 95.44–98.12 |
Yes | 2.62 (0.00) | 1.93–3.55 | 2.58 (0.00) | 1.80–3.68 | 2.94 (0.01) | 1.88–4.56 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | Model 7 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | |
Race (Black) | 1.41 (1.23–1.61) *** | 1.45 (1.27–1.65) *** | 1.20 (1.03–1.40) * | 1.14 (0.98–1.33) # | 1.13 (0.97–1.32) | 1.12 (0.96–1.31) | 1.10 (0.95–1.28) |
Age | 1.09 (1.09–1.10) *** | 1.09 (1.09–1.10) *** | 1.09 (1.08–1.09) *** | 1.09 (1.08–1.09) *** | 1.08 (1.08–1.09) *** | 1.08 (1.08–1.09) *** | 1.09 (1.08–1.10) *** |
Gender (Female) | 0.60 (0.53–0.69) *** | 0.60 (0.53–0.69) *** | 0.55 (0.48–0.64) *** | 0.56 (0.48–0.64) *** | 0.54 (0.47–0.62) *** | 0.54 (0.47–0.62) *** | 0.56 (0.48–0.65) *** |
Education (12 years or more) | 0.81 (0.71–0.93) ** | 0.87 (0.76–1.00) # | 0.89 (0.78–1.01) # | 0.89 (0.78–1.02) # | 0.90 (0.79–1.03) | ||
Income | 0.92 (0.89–0.94) *** | 0.93 (0.90–0.96) *** | 0.93 (0.91–0.96) *** | 0.93 (0.91–0.96) *** | 0.94 (0.91–0.97) *** | ||
Self-Rated Health (SRH; Poor or Fair) | 1.74 (1.50–2.01) *** | 1.54 (1.32–1.79) *** | 1.51 (1.30–1.77) *** | 1.47 (1.26–1.73) *** | |||
Chronic medical conditions (CMC) | 1.16 (1.11–1.22) *** | 1.16 (1.11–1.21) *** | 1.16 (1.11–1.22) *** | ||||
Body Mass Index (BMI) | 0.99 (0.98–1.01) | 0.99 (0.98–1.01) | 1.00 (0.98–1.02) | ||||
Depressive Symptoms | 1.11 (0.91–1.37) | 1.09 (0.89–1.33) | |||||
Smoking | 1.80 (1.54–2.11) *** | ||||||
Drinking | 1.00 (1.00–1.00) | ||||||
Physical Assault | 2.18 (1.21–3.93) * | 2.55 (1.35–4.80) ** | 2.28 (1.24–4.18) ** | 2.23 (1.20–4.11) * | 2.12 (1.15–3.89) * | 2.10 (1.14–3.88) * | 1.88 (1.02–3.45) * |
Physical Assault × Race (Black) | - | 0.29 (0.09–0.92) * | 0.30 (0.10–0.87) * | 0.31 (0.11–0.89) * | 0.34 (0.12–0.96) * | 0.34 (0.12–0.96) * | 0.33 (0.11–1.00) * |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | Model 6 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | |
Age | 1.10 (1.09–1.10) *** | 1.09 (1.08–1.10) *** | 1.09 (1.08–1.10) *** | 1.09 (1.08–1.09) *** | 1.09 (1.08–1.09) *** | 1.09 (1.09–1.10) *** |
Gender (Female) | 0.58 (0.50–0.67) *** | 0.54 (0.46–0.63) *** | 0.54 (0.46–0.63) *** | 0.52 (0.45–0.61) *** | 0.52 (0.44–0.61) *** | 0.54 (0.45–0.63) *** |
Education (12 years or more) | 0.79 (0.69–0.92) ** | 0.86 (0.74–1.00) # | 0.87 (0.76–1.01) # | 0.88 (0.76–1.02) # | 0.89 (0.77–1.04) | |
Income | 0.92 (0.89–0.94) *** | 0.93 (0.91–0.96) *** | 0.93 (0.91–0.96) *** | 0.94 (0.91–0.96) *** | 0.94 (0.91–0.97) *** | |
Self-Rated Health (SRH; Poor or Fair) | 1.88 (1.63–2.18) *** | 1.65 (1.41–1.94) *** | 1.60 (1.36–1.89) *** | 1.55 (1.30–1.85) *** | ||
Chronic medical conditions (CMC) | 1.17 (1.11–1.23) *** | 1.17 (1.11–1.23) *** | 1.17 (1.11–1.24) *** | |||
Body Mass Index (BMI) | 0.99 (0.97–1.01) | 0.99 (0.97–1.01) | 1.00 (0.98–1.02) | |||
Depressive Symptoms | 1.21 (0.95–1.55) | 1.18 (0.93–1.50) | ||||
Smoking | 1.85 (1.52–2.24) *** | |||||
Drinking | 1.00 (1.00–1.00) | |||||
Physical Assault | 2.67 (1.40–5.09) ** | 2.40 (1.29–4.46) ** | 2.36 (1.26–4.41) ** | 2.23 (1.20–4.14) * | 2.20 (1.17–4.12) * | 1.96 (1.05–3.65) *** |
Model 7 | Model 8 | Model 9 | Model 10 | Model 11 | Model 12 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | HR (95% CIs) | |
Age | 1.08 (1.07–1.08) *** | 1.07 (1.06–1.08) *** | 1.07 (1.06–1.08) *** | 1.06 (1.05–1.07) *** | 1.06 (1.05–1.07) *** | 1.07 (1.06–1.08) *** |
Gender (Female) | 0.74 (0.60–0.91) ** | 0.65 (0.53–0.81) *** | 0.65 (0.53–0.80) *** | 0.64 (0.51–0.81) *** | 0.65 (0.52–0.81) *** | 0.73 (0.57–0.92) ** |
Education (12 years or more) | 0.90 (0.70–1.17) | 0.92 (0.71–1.20) | 0.94 (0.72–1.24) | 0.93 (0.71–1.22) | 0.94 (0.73–1.22) | |
Income | 0.91 (0.86–0.96) *** | 0.92 (0.87–0.97) ** | 0.92 (0.87–0.97) ** | 0.91 (0.86–0.96) *** | 0.91 (0.86–0.96) *** | |
Self-Rated Health (SRH; Poor or Fair) | 1.19 (0.98–1.44) # | 1.09 (0.89–1.34) | 1.12 (0.92–1.36) | 1.11 (0.92–1.34) | ||
Chronic medical conditions (CMC) | 1.12 (1.01–1.23) * | 1.13 (1.02–1.25) * | 1.13 (1.01–1.25) * | |||
Body Mass Index (BMI) | 1.00 (0.98–1.01) | 1.00 (0.98–1.01) | 1.00 (0.98–1.02) | |||
Depressive Symptoms | 0.77 (0.61–0.97) * | 0.75 (0.59–0.95) * | ||||
Smoking | 1.56 (1.29–1.90) *** | |||||
Drinking | 1.00 (1.00–1.01) | |||||
Physical Assault | 0.67 (0.27–1.65) | 0.60 (0.25–1.41) | 0.59 (0.25–1.39) | 0.61 (0.26–1.41) | 0.62 (0.27–1.42) | 0.53 (0.21–1.33) |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Assari, S.; Haidar, J. History of Non-Fatal Physical Assault Is Associated with Premature Mortality for Whites but Not Blacks. J 2018, 1, 81-93. https://doi.org/10.3390/j1010009
Assari S, Haidar J. History of Non-Fatal Physical Assault Is Associated with Premature Mortality for Whites but Not Blacks. J. 2018; 1(1):81-93. https://doi.org/10.3390/j1010009
Chicago/Turabian StyleAssari, Shervin, and Jalal Haidar. 2018. "History of Non-Fatal Physical Assault Is Associated with Premature Mortality for Whites but Not Blacks" J 1, no. 1: 81-93. https://doi.org/10.3390/j1010009