Next Article in Journal
Mineral-Imposed Accessibility and Microbial Processing Drive Contrasting Mineralization Regimes and Carbon Balance of MAOC
Previous Article in Journal
Prediction of Soil Total Nitrogen through Vis–NIR Spectroscopy and Machine Learning: From Model Comparison to Explainability
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Soil Systems
Volume 10
Issue 5
10.3390/soilsystems10050060
soilsystems-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Late Glacial Fluvial Transitions and Holocene Peat Accumulation: A High-Resolution Stratigraphic Study from the Eastern Great Hungarian Plain

by
Tamás Zsolt Vári
*,
Pál Sümegi
and
Elemér Pál-Molnár
Department of Geology, University of Szeged, 2–6 Egyetem Street, H-6722 Szeged, Hungary
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Soil Syst. 2026, 10(5), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems10050060
Submission received: 31 December 2025 / Revised: 25 April 2026 / Accepted: 12 May 2026 / Published: 21 May 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Peatlands: Properties, Values and Recent Advances)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study presents a high-resolution, multi-proxy palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Tövises fen at Pocsaj, Hungary, utilising lithostratigraphical, geochemical, malacological, and palynological analyses supported by radiocarbon dating. The sedimentary sequence documents the transition from a Late Glacial fluvial system (c. 19,000–16,000 cal BP) to a cut-off meander and subsequent oxbow lake, eventually evolving into a peat-forming fen. Malacological and palynological data reveal the co-occurrence of cold-tolerant Late Pleistocene elements and the early appearance of thermomesophilous taxa at the onset of the Holocene. This suggests that the favourable microclimate of the adjacent loess-covered high bank and the humid alluvial plain functioned as a cryptic refugium for temperate broad-leaved trees and associated fauna during the Late Glacial. Anthropogenic impact is traceable from the Mesolithic, characterised by Corylus management, intensifying through Neolithic agriculture to a peak during the Roman Imperial Period. Geochemical markers in the upper peat sequence reflect increased biomass and medieval habitation, while recent malacofaunal shifts indicate progressive desiccation. Despite modern drainage attempts, the Tövises fen remains a biodiversity hotspot of high conservation value, preserving relict wetland communities.

1. Introduction

In the temperate zones of Europe, floodplain and oxbow lake sediment sequences serve as invaluable, high-resolution archives of past environmental conditions. These ecosystems are particularly sensitive to both climatic fluctuations and direct anthropogenic disturbance, recording changes in hydrology, vegetation, and land use with remarkable fidelity. The Great Hungarian Plain (Figure 1), situated within the Carpathian Basin, represents one of Europe’s largest fluvial landscapes, whose Holocene evolution has been profoundly shaped by the dynamic interplay of river systems, neotectonic activity, and climatic shifts [1,2,3]. Consequently, palaeoenvironmental reconstructions from this region are crucial for understanding the long-term dynamics of lowland landscapes and their response to environmental drivers.
The Quaternary evolutionary history of the Nyírség region was marked by a series of pivotal events that governed the interrelationship of surficial deposits across the northeastern Great Hungarian Plain, while also determining the hydrological conditions and geological development of the Érmellék region, including the Tövises fen [2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]. During the early and middle Quaternary, the area functioned as an active depositional centre, accommodating the Palaeo-Tisza River system and the precursors of the Bodrog river, which flowed across the fan from the Northeast Carpathians. Towards the end of the Middle Pleistocene (c. 40–30 ka BP), the subsidence in the Nyírség sub-basin ceased and was replaced by gradual uplift. This neotectonic inversion led to a fundamental reorganisation of the fluvial network; the major rivers were diverted to the margins of the emerging alluvial fan. This process resulted in the desiccation of the fan’s surface, exposing large quantities of unconsolidated fluvial sediment to aeolian processes. This, in turn, led to the formation of extensive sand dunes and the deposition of significant loess sequences on the fan’s periphery, including the Érmellék region to the south.
This large-scale landscape reorganisation during the Late Pleniglacial set the stage for the final phases of fluvial evolution in the study area. As the Tisza River established its modern course, circumnavigating the Nyírség to the north and west, the Szamos River became the dominant agent of landscape formation along the fan’s southern margin [12,13]. Flowing along the newly formed escarpment, or high bank, of the Érmellék, the Palaeo-Szamos incised into the older alluvial sediments and loess deposits, creating a new floodplain. During the Late Glacial and Early Holocene (c. 20–15 ka BP), the meandering activity of the Szamos River within this floodplain gave rise to numerous oxbow lakes, including the Tövises palaeochannel, the focus of the present study [12,13]. These relict fluvial features preserve sedimentary records spanning the transition from the last glacial period to the climatically distinct conditions of the Holocene.
While the Early- to Mid-Holocene development of the region was primarily governed by climatic factors, the last few centuries have been characterised by anthropogenic impacts of an unprecedented scale. Beginning in the mid-19th century, extensive river regulation and drainage schemes, largely following the vision of Count István Széchenyi, profoundly altered the hydrological regime of the entire Carpathian Basin. This transformed the landscape from a mosaic of wetlands, floodplain forests, and wet meadows into the intensively managed agricultural region seen today. The process was further accelerated in the 20th century through mechanised agriculture and the policies of collectivisation, which led to the near-complete drainage of remaining fens and marshes, resulting in severe habitat fragmentation and loss of biodiversity [14,15].
The Pocsaj oxbow lake, situated within the relict Tövises palaeochannel (Figure 2), represents a rare, surviving remnant of the once-extensive pre-regulation Érmellék wetland ecosystem. Its unique hydrogeological position, nestled at the base of the loess-covered Érmellék high bank, suggests a complex and potentially resilient hydrology, making it an exceptional natural laboratory for palaeoenvironmental research. Indeed, its potential as a high-resolution archive has been recognised in a series of recent investigations that have targeted the sedimentological history of the Tövises fen. These studies, focusing mainly on sediment grain size analyses, have utilized parameterized endmember modelling, compositional data analysis, and X-ray CT imaging to reconstruct the physical processes of channel infilling and sedimentary dynamics [16,17,18,19,20]. While this body of work provides a framework for the basin’s physical evolution, the long-term ecological and vegetation history of the site has remained largely unexplored.
This study addresses that gap through a comprehensive multiproxy investigation of a newly recovered sediment core from the Tövises fen. By combining detailed sedimentological and geochemical analyses with pollen and malacological records, we aim to reconstruct the environmental trajectory of this oxbow-lake system from its Late Glacial origin through the Holocene and into the period of intensive human modification. More specifically, we examine the extent to which the basin originated as an oxbow of the Palaeo-Szamos river system, whether long-term persistence of the lake was sustained by stable groundwater input from the adjacent Nyírség alluvial fan, and how climatic forcing, autogenic succession, fluvial dynamics, and anthropogenic disturbance interacted through time to shape the development of the wetland. By situating the Tövises record within the wider evolution of the Great Hungarian Plain, the study provides a new regional perspective on the resilience and vulnerability of relict lowland wetlands.
Beyond its local relevance, the study has broader significance for the interpretation of temperate floodplain archives and for understanding the long-term stability of groundwater-supported wetland ecosystems under combined natural and human pressures. In a regional context, it contributes essential baseline evidence for the Quaternary and Holocene evolution of the Érmellék and the southern Nyírség margin. More generally, it offers a high-resolution case study of how relict oxbow systems can preserve coupled records of geomorphological, ecological, and anthropogenic change across major climatic and hydrological transitions. The resulting reconstruction provides a scientifically robust foundation for future conservation and restoration strategies in one of the most transformed wetland landscapes of the Carpathian Basin.
Main research objectives:
  • To integrate sedimentological, geochemical, palynological, and malacological proxies into a single palaeoenvironmental framework.
  • To reconstruct the origin and long-term environmental development of the Tövises fen/Pocsaj oxbow lake using a multiproxy sediment-core record.
  • To explore the relative roles of climatic change, autogenic succession, fluvial processes, and human activity in shaping the development and long-term persistence of this ecologically important wetland system.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Walter–Lieth Climate Diagram

A Walter–Lieth climate diagram [21] was generated using meteorological data from the Pocsaj station (#65403; 97 m a.s.l.), provided by the National Meteorological Service [22,23]. This station is located (47.2778° N, 21.7972° E) approximately 6 km from the study site. The diagram was created in RStudio [24] with the diagwl function of the climatol R package (v. 4.2-0) [25]. The analysis covers the ten-year period from January 2014 to December 2023. Records from 2024 and onward were excluded from the analysis due to the presence of missing precipitation values in 2024 February.

2.2. Sampling

A 4-metre-long core was collected using a Russian peat corer with an overlapping method [26,27] from the southeastern side of the oxbow lake (Figure 2). The sediment sections were wrapped in clingfilm then aluminium foil and properly stored under dark and cold conditions (4 °C). The section was described in the field following the Munsell Colour Chart [28] and the Troels-Smith classification [29].

2.3. Loss on Ignition

The organic (OM), carbonate (CC), and residual inorganic (IM) fractions of the samples were quantified by loss-on-ignition (LOI) analysis in the laboratory of the Department of Geology and Palaeontology, University of Szeged, Hungary [30,31]. The sediment core was subsampled at 1 cm resolution, and every second sample was analysed, resulting in a 2 cm sampling interval. Empty crucibles were weighed prior to use, after which the samples were placed into them and dried at 105 °C for 24 h in a laboratory furnace. Once cooled to room temperature, the dried material was homogenised to a fine powder and weighed again. The samples were then heated at 550 °C for 4 h to remove the organic fraction, cooled, and reweighed. In the final step, the residues were ignited at 950 °C for 2 h; the additional mass loss recorded after this treatment was taken to represent carbonate content. The remaining material was considered the inorganic residue.

2.4. Grain Size Analysis

Grain-size distributions were determined at 2 cm depth intervals. The measurements covered 42 different grain size categories ranging from 0.1 µm to 500 µm with a <3% repeatability and were obtained using laser diffraction with the OMEC ‘Easysizer20’ laser particle size analyser.

2.5. Magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility analyses were conducted on bulk samples with a 2 cm sample interval. Samples were put into small ceramic crucibles and dried in an oven at 105 °C for 24 h, then they were crushed in a porcelain mortar after weighing, prior to the start of the measurement. Measurements were taken at a frequency of 2 kHz using an MS2 Bartington magnetic susceptibility meter with an MS2E high-resolution sensor [32,33]. Three measurements were performed on each sample, and the resulting values were averaged.

2.6. Geochemical Analysis

The water-extracted elements (Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Mn) were determined at a 2 cm sampling interval using a PerkinElmer atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) via the first step of the sequential extraction method [34]. As the most significant palaeohydrological and palaeoecological insights were yielded by the water extraction of unseparated samples, this step was deemed sufficient to meet the analytical objectives of the research.

2.7. Palynological Analysis

A volumetric sampler was used to obtain 2 cm3 samples, which were then processed for pollen recovery [35] in the laboratory of the Department of Geology and Palaeontology at the University of Szeged, Hungary. Lycopodium spore tablets of known concentrations were added to each sample to determine pollen concentrations [36]. Micro-charcoal abundances were determined using the point count method [37]. At least 500 pollen grains per sample, excluding exotic markers, were counted to ensure statistical reliability [38,39]. Pollen and other palynomorphs were identified with a Zeiss Jenapol planachromat polarising microscope at 100–500× magnification using the relevant identification keys and atlases [40,41,42,43], supplemented by the reference collection of the Hungarian Geological Institute, Budapest. Percentages of terrestrial pollen taxa (AP and NAP), excluding Cyperaceae, were calculated using the sum of all those taxa. Percentages of Cyperaceae, aquatics, and pteridophyte spores were calculated relative to the main sum.

2.8. Malacological Analysis

Samples intended for malacological analysis were taken at 2 cm intervals. After sieving through 0.5 mm mesh, mollusc shells were dried, sorted, and taxonomically identified under a stereo dissecting microscope at magnifications 6–50× in the laboratory of the Department of Geology and Palaeontology at the University of Szeged, Hungary. The malacofauna were assigned to palaeoecological groups on the basis of established palaeoecological classifications [10,44,45,46,47,48,49]. The malacological record was also classified according to the recent geographical distribution of the species and based on palaeoclimatological indicator roles [10,50,51,52,53,54,55,56].

2.9. Radiocarbon Analysis

One bulk peat sample and two bulk charcoal samples were submitted for AMS radiocarbon dating [57,58] and measured at the Hertelendi Laboratory of Environmental Studies, Institute for Nuclear Research, Debrecen, Hungary [59,60,61,62]. The age–depth modelling [63] was performed with RBacon 2.5.8 in RStudio 2025.05.01, with IntCal20 calibration curve [64,65].

3. Results

3.1. Local Climate

Figure 3 summarises the 2014–2023 weather conditions at Pocsaj, showing a mean annual temperature of 11.92 °C and mean annual precipitation of 542.1 mm. Temperatures follow a clear seasonal cycle, rising from near-freezing winter values (January 2017: −18.6 °C) to a summer maximum (July 2022: 40.3 °C), with potential frost risk extending from October to April. Mean monthly temperature amplitude is 25.74 °C.
Precipitation is moderate but strongly seasonal, with a broadly bimodal pattern: a main peak in May and a secondary peak in November, interrupted by a marked August deficit. This distribution generally supports early-season vegetation and agriculture but indicates increased late-summer moisture stress.
Over the 10-year period, no statistically robust warming trend is evident. However, increasing minimum temperatures, stable maximum temperatures, and decreasing temperature amplitude suggest milder cold conditions. Precipitation remains highly variable, with possible signs of seasonal redistribution rather than a simple long-term decrease.

3.2. Radiocarbon Model

The calibrated ages of the three analysed samples are 140 ± 80 cal BP (20 cm), 3550 ± 190 cal BP (140 cm), and 13,240 ± 100 cal BP (310 cm) (Table 1). According to the age–depth modelling (Figure 4), the section records environmental changes over approximately the last 16–19 ka in the immediate vicinity of the oxbow lake. However, three radiocarbon dates across a 4 m stratigraphic profile spanning the Late Glacial and the Holocene are insufficient for high-resolution chronological reconstruction. In fluvial–lacustrine environments characterised by variable sedimentation rates, erosional phases, and facies shifts, such sparse chronological control inevitably results in reduced temporal precision [66,67].
In intervals situated between dated levels, deviations of several hundred years to approximately 1 ka cannot be excluded, whereas extrapolation below 310 cm may introduce uncertainties on the order of 1–3 ka or more. Consequently, the age model provides resolution at the millennial scale only. The dated material comprises bulk peat and charcoal, both of which are subject to inherent methodological uncertainties. Bulk peat may yield rejuvenated ages due to root penetration or the downward movement of younger organic carbon, potentially leading to age underestimation. Charcoal ages may be influenced by the old wood effect, producing dates several hundred years older than the actual burning event. Despite these potential biases, the stratigraphic sequence shows no age inversions, and the chronological order remains internally consistent. Any offsets associated with material-specific biases are considered minor relative to the multi-millennial scope of the reconstruction [67].
Within these constraints, the succession documents a transition from glacial and fluvial deposition in the basal units to lacustrine and organic-rich sedimentation during the Holocene. Vegetation changes are interpreted at a broad temporal scale, without implying precise correlation with short-lived climatic events. The chronological framework is therefore regarded as sufficiently reliable for reconstructing long-term environmental development, while acknowledging that the exact dating of individual events within the sequence remains uncertain.

3.3. Sedimentological and Geochemical Results

The 396 and 400 cm interval is characterised by the accumulation of a bluish-grey to dark grey (10 YR 4/1), clayey fine silt to fine-silty coarse silt (As4). Deposition of this unit occurred between c. 19,000 and 16,000 cal BP (median estimate: 17,660–17,760 cal BP). Geochemically, it is characterised by significant concentrations of carbonates and water-soluble Ca and K, coinciding with moderate MS values, whereas OM and other water-soluble elements remain subordinate. This pelitic unit, intercalated within the fluvial sand sequence, is interpreted as the result of a waning flow event within the channel during the Late Glacial transition. The preserved thickness of this horizon is estimated to be 4 cm; however, precise delineation was hindered by the liquefaction and subsequent core loss (‘running sand’) of the underlying fine-sandy medium sand (Figure 4 and Figure 5, Table S1).
On the basal fluvial level (396–348 cm), a cross-bedded fine sand (Ga4, 10YR 7/2) layer developed between min. c. 14,000 cal BP and max. c. 19,000 cal BP (median: 17,550–15,120 cal BP). Concurrently, the silt and clay fractions diminish to near-zero values. This grain size shift is mirrored by a profound depletion in all measured water-soluble elements. From 368 cm, there is an increase upwards in Ca, Mg, Na, K and Fe elements.
A thick layer (346–124 cm) of laminated clayey fine silt with a small amount of sand (As4, 10YR 4/1) deposited on top of the riverbed that formed the oxbow lake. The sediment is characterised as first oligotrophic-mesotrophic, dominated by silt with increasing clay content. Organic matter content increases with carbonate content between 180–124 cm. Overall, other than Ca, Mn and water-soluble elements have frequent fluctuations. Na is overall minimal with small fluctuations and similar trend to Ca and carbonate content.
A second fluvial sediment was deposited between 122–106 cm, which is calcareous fine sand (Ga4, 10YR 7/2). Even though water-soluble Fe contents are on average higher, the maximum Fe and average MS values of the bottom fluvial layer are higher.
The fine carbonate crumbs (like the calcareous efflorescence found in loess) found in the finely laminated clayey fine silt sediment (Sh1Th1As2, 10YR 4/3) support the presence of sediments redeposited from the loess wall in the upper levels (104–48 cm). Cyclical increases in the clay and fine silt manifest as very fine, mm-scale laminae rich in IM. MS values are high, OM is continuously increasing, meanwhile CC peaks. K, Fe and Mn elements exhibit trends and values similar as between 180–124 cm, meanwhile Ca, Mg and Na content values are much higher.
Organic matter content is constantly high due to the accumulated peaty fen sediment composed of reed and cattail remains (Th4, 10YR 3/3), meanwhile carbonate content exhibits a decrease in favour of inorganic matter content; MS values are the highest at the top part, peaking at the surface (46–0 cm). Clay fraction is decreasing towards the top in favour of silt. Na and K values are the highest in this top part; Fe and Mn values are the highest around c. 40 cm, then decrease towards the surface; Ca and, to some degree, Mg follow the decreasing trend of CC, only to increase somewhat near the surface.

3.4. Malacological Results

The fluvial sand and coarse silt-rich layers constituting the base of the profile accumulated during the initial phase of the Late Glacial. The fluvial sand was dominated (30–40%) by rheophilous elements, specifically indicative of a fluvial environment characterised by flowing, oxygen-rich waters. The assemblage was defined by the dominance of species inhabiting the thalweg of the river channel, including both gastropods (Lymnaea stagnalis, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Valvata piscinalis, Valvata naticina) and bivalves (Unio crassus). In addition to fauna preferring flowing, well-oxygenated waters, the remains of gastropod species typical of Pleistocene floodplains (Succinea putris, Succinea oblonga, Vertigo geyeri, Vertigo parcedentata, Perforatella rubiginosa) were recovered.
A similar faunal composition persisted into the onset of the Holocene; however, cold-tolerant elements (e.g., Bithynia leachi) regressed, persisting only in low abundance. Conversely, the proportion of thermophilous species increased, and new faunal elements that spread throughout the basin during the Holocene appeared (e.g., Bithynia tentaculata). During this phase, the channel was dominated by aquatic gastropod species such as Lymnaea palustris, Planorbarius corneus, Planorbis planorbis, and Anisus septemgyratus. Furthermore, the most reliable indicators of the Holocene extant fauna, the Pannonian snail (Cepaea vindobonensis) and the Roman snail (Helix pomatia), also appeared in the profile at the beginning of the Holocene.
During the Bronze Age, particularly in its final phase and at the onset of the Iron Age, faunal changes reflected a distinctive climatic shift. Thermophilous species retreated, with their dominance decreasing or disappearing entirely from this horizon. Concurrently, the proportion of the cold-tolerant Bithynia leachi increased significantly. Parallel to these changes, at the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, gastropod species characteristic of moving water and river channels (Valvata naticina, Valvata piscinalis, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Lymnaea stagnalis, Unio crassus) appeared in large numbers, a phenomenon clearly associated with fluvial sand intercalation.
Following the fluvial faunal horizon, an assemblage characteristic of a fen-lake environment developed, marked by a distinct increase in the abundance of Viviparus contectus, Bithynia tentaculata, Acroloxus lacustris, and Pisidium species. In this environment, amphibious gastropods inhabiting the riparian and fen macrophytic vegetation (Succinea putris, Succinea oblonga, Oxyloma elegans) became widespread, alongside terrestrial species such as Carychium minimum, Vertigo angustior, and Vallonia pulchella. Based on the gastropod fauna, this horizon represents the peak of species richness and abundance, indicating outstanding biodiversity.
Over the last millennium, the proportion of amphibious terrestrial species reached its maximum, while a significant portion of aquatic species retreated, and species capable of tolerating ephemeral water bodies and temporary pools appeared. Among these elements, Valvata cristata, Anisus spirorbis, Viviparus contectus, Bithynia tentaculata, Acroloxus lacustris, and Pisidium species showed peak abundance. Within the terrestrial fauna, alongside the maxima of amber snails (Succinea putris, Succinea oblonga, Oxyloma elegans) and Carychium minimum, Vertigo angustior, Vallonia pulchella, and Vallonia costata, Vertigo moulinsiana also appeared. Furthermore, xeromesophilous terrestrial elements colonized the peat surface of the closed fen and marsh. Terrestrial taxa appearing in this phase included Granaria frumentum, Cochlicopa lubrica, Pupilla muscorum, Chondrula tridens, Cepaea vindobonensis, and Helix pomatia.

3.5. Pollen Results

The arboreal component (AP—Arboreal Pollen) includes coniferous elements such as Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), Picea abies (Norway spruce), and Juniperus (juniper), alongside a broad deciduous assemblage featuring Betula (birch), Fraxinus excelsior (European ash), deciduous Quercus (oak), Tilia (lime), Ulmus (elm), Acer (maple), Carpinus (hornbeam), Fagus (beech), Alnus glutinosa (black alder), Salix (willow), Populus (poplar), Juglans (walnut), and the non-native Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust). Shrub and liana taxa are represented by Corylus (hazel), Vitis (grapevine), Sambucus (elder), and Prunus (stone fruits).
The non-arboreal pollen (NAP) fraction is dominated by Poaceae (grasses) and Cerealia (cereals), accompanied by a wide range of herbaceous taxa including Artemisia (mugwort), Centaurea (knapweed), Amaranthaceae (goosefoot family), Plantago lanceolata (ribwort plantain), Plantago major-media (greater plantain), Urtica (nettle), and Ephedra (joint-pine), Caryophyllaceae (pink family), Brassicaceae (mustard family), Euphorbia (spurge), Filipendula (meadowsweet), Galium (bedstraw), Helianthemum (rock-rose), Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass), Polygonum persicaria (redshank), Polygonum viviparum (alpine bistort), Rosaceae (rose family), Thalictrum (meadow-rue), Apiaceae (carrot family), and Veronica (speedwell), as well as various Asteraceae types such as Achillea-type, Aster-type, Cirsium-type, and Taraxacum-type.
The local aquatic and wetland vegetation is characterised by Cyperaceae (sedges), Phragmites (common reed), Sparganium-Typha angustifolia (bur-reed/lesser bulrush), Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail), Nuphar (yellow water-lily), Nymphaea (white water-lily), Myriophyllum spicatum (spiked water-milfoil), Myriophyllum verticillatum (whorled water-milfoil), Utricularia (bladderwort), and Ranunculaceae (buttercup family), complemented by Equisetum (horsetail), Polypodiales (ferns), and the algae Botryococcus and Pediastrum.
No pollen was preserved in either fluvial unit (Figure 6 and Figure 7).
In the initial short horizon (400–396 cm) of the Late Glacial, the arboreal spectrum was dominated by Pinus (pine), Picea (spruce), Betula (birch) and Salix (willow); meanwhile the herbaceous taxa was dominated by Poaceae, Artemisia, and Amaranthaceae.
In the subsequent Late Glacial level, thermophilous and heliophilous elements (Corylus, Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus) appeared in the area, albeit in varying low proportions. Nevertheless, the section remained dominated by herbaceous pollen (Poaceae, Artemisia, Amaranthaceae).
At the onset of the Holocene, the dominance of broad-leaved trees rose, while Pinus and Betula values decreased. This horizon was characterised by the increasing dominance of thermophilous and heliophilous taxa, specifically Corylus, Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus, Tilia, and Ulmus. Shortly thereafter, Vitis sylvestris (wild grapevine) appeared in the record. The establishment of Fagus (beech) and Carpinus (hornbeam) began at ca. 11,000 cal BP. Quercus remained the dominant taxon, while Ulmus values showed the most significant decline. Sambucus (elder) appeared shortly after, around 10,600 cal BP. In the pollen spectrum, the presence of cereal pollen (Cerealia) was detectable around 10,000 cal BP, coinciding with the appearance of Centaurea and a peak in Amaranthaceae.
From a depth of approx. 220 cm to 124 cm (c. 8500–3000 cal BP), cultivated plants—primarily cereals (initially wheat and barley, followed by rye)—are clearly identifiable. Pollen of weeds indicative of arable land, pastures, and human settlement is present throughout this zone with low but fluctuating values. The AP/NP ratio decreased unequivocally, reflecting a reduction in woodland cover. Around 160–150 cm, Juniperus appears, Fagus begins to decline, while the proportions of Quercus, Fraxinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Carpinus, Alnus, and Corylus increase, leading to a temporary recovery in the AP ratio.
In the interval between approx. 104 cm and 60 cm, the pollen proportion of weed vegetation and cultivated plants (Cerealia) increased sharply, while conifers declined. Above the younger Holocene fluvial layer, the AP ratio generally decreased, and the composition shifted significantly, characterised by a progressive decline in pine. Initially, Fraxinus, Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus, Carpinus, Fagus, Alnus, and Corylus dominated. This trend gradually reversed towards the surface; however, it was preceded by a transitional phase (around 50 cm) marked by an increase in Pinus and Sambucus and the appearance of Populus. Concurrently, certain taxa retreated significantly (Alnus) or began to decline, eventually disappearing near the surface (Fraxinus, Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus, Acer, Carpinus, Fagus, Corylus, Vitis).

4. Discussion

4.1. Geomorphological Evolution and Channel Formation

According to geomorphological and hydrogeological models, the channel was originally formed by the Szamos water system [70,71,72]. The high magnetic susceptibility values in the basal layer distinguish this catchment lithologically from the younger Holocene fluvial inputs, confirming a shift in the hydrological regime at the Pleistocene–Holocene transition. The younger, Late Holocene sand intercalation is associated with the Ér stream. If these exogenic geological interpretations are correct, the Ér stream appeared within the Ér valley—previously shaped by the Palaeo-Tisza and Palaeo-Szamos rivers—and on the Ér valley alluvium sometime during the onset of the Holocene, following the Late Glacial period.
Based on pollen–vegetation relationships established for Eurasian vegetation zones [73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85], a boreal forest-steppe vegetation likely developed in the environs of the Tövises channel at the end of the Late Pleistocene. This phase, occurring between the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Late Glacial transition, corresponded to a cold mixed-forest steppe (parkland-type boreal) environment [86,87]. This palaeovegetation type is fully consistent with the transitional life zone between boreal moist forest, grassland, and dry scrub described in the modified Holdridge bioclimatic system [88,89,90,91]. This bioclimatic approach is particularly significant as it allows for the precise delimitation of modern analogues for the vegetation type reconstructed from the pollen spectra [92]. The basal fluvial sedimentary layer was developed between c. 17,500 and 15,000 cal BP, following the significant cooling event at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, with a considerable part of it being correlated with the Late Glacial stratigraphic unit [46].
A Late Pleistocene lacustrine sequence, characterised by horizontal lamination, accumulated upon the fluvial bed sediments that shaped the Tövises palaeochannel. Within this sequence, organic matter and clay content show a continuous upward increase. From the beginning of the Holocene, the initially oligotrophic–mesotrophic sediment gradually transformed into eutrophic pelitic sediment. This oxbow lake phase, and the associated accumulation and alteration of lacustrine sediment, persisted for approximately 12,000 years (from c. 15,000 cal BP to c. 3000 cal BP), spanning the Late Glacial, the Pleistocene/Holocene transition, and the majority of the Holocene.

4.2. Late Glacial and Early Holocene Palaeoecology and Refugial Dynamics

Based on pollen proportions, the oxbow lake was surrounded by boreal forest-steppe and mixed taiga-steppe at the end of the Late Glacial. The channel was likely bordered by a closed mixed taiga gallery forest, while boreal steppe/forest-steppe vegetation developed on the high bank, which was covered by 5–6 metres of loess. The early appearance of thermomesophilous trees suggests that the edge of the south-southwest facing high bank and its contact zone with the alluvial plain functioned as a temperate refugium or was situated on the periphery of such a refugium [1,46,92].
The faunal composition—specifically the co-occurrence of cold-tolerant, cold-preferring species of North European distribution present throughout the basin during the Late Glacial (Valvata pulchella, Anisus leucostoma) with mild-climate preferring species appearing (Lithoglyphus naticoides)—is highly characteristic of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene malacofauna of the Carpathian Basin [46,92]. The overlapping distribution of cold-adapted and mild-climate elements points to a faunal evolution in the Carpathian Basin that is distinct from the rest of Europe, underpinned by the “double refugium” effect [1,10,46,92]. Based on the faunal composition, a cold water body exceeding 3 metres in depth developed within the fluvial channel. The channel margins were likely bordered by cold and humid steppe or pseudo tundra patches, which supported cold-tolerant terrestrial gastropod species (Succinea putris, Succinea oblonga, Vertigo geyeri, Vertigo parcedentata, Perforatella rubiginosa). It can be hypothesized that on the humid Pleistocene floodplain and alluvium, pseudo tundra-like cold steppe patches and areas covered by Boreal-type tall-herb vegetation developed. Cold, wet steppe patches dominated by herbaceous plants, reminiscent of tundra, may also have formed. Based on the gastropod fauna, a carbonate-rich, so-called calciphilous environment developed on the Pleistocene floodplain.
The refugial or peri-refugial character of the area is further emphasized in the subsequent pollen zone at the onset of the Holocene, where thermomesophilous elements appeared in the profile [1,34,46]. The seeming contradiction between the pollen evidence and the reconstructed vegetation can be explained by local microclimates. On the slopes of the high bank, the extra warmth provided by favourable sun exposure, together with the greater moisture retained in the alluvial deposits, helped offset the generally colder and drier conditions of the Late Glacial period by creating a locally milder and wetter environment than the regional climate would suggest. Favourable exposure increased solar heating on the slope, which raised near-ground temperatures and reduced cold stress, while the moist alluvial sediments retained water and maintained higher humidity, which reduced drought stress. Together, these conditions allowed plants to survive in habitats that were warmer and less dry than the surrounding landscape. This allowed thermomesophilous temperate trees to spread within a mixed taiga forest, while on the shores of the oxbow lake, a mixed gallery forest dominated by Scots pine and spruce, but intermingled with birch, willow, and alder, developed.
In the oxbow lake phase developed during the transition between the Late Glacial and the Holocene (c. 15,000–11,700 cal BP), cold-indicator elements that were still widespread at the end of the Pleistocene (Lymnaea glabra, Anisus leucostoma, Vertigo geyeri, Vertigo parcedentata) regressed and disappeared. Species preferring flowing, fluvial waters (Lymnaea stagnalis, Lithoglyphus naticoides, Valvata piscinalis, Valvata naticina) also retreated from this horizon, giving way to a cosmopolitan aquatic fauna of predominantly Holarctic and Palearctic distribution. In the Late Glacial horizon, an oxbow system deeper than 3 metres developed, supporting an aquatic gastropod fauna tolerant of oligotrophic conditions.

4.3. Early Holocene Biogeography and Vegetation Mosaic Patterns

Based on sediment composition and structure, a significant amount of alluvium accumulated in the oxbow lake. However, during the second half of the Holocene, likely driven by anthropogenic impacts, the vegetation cover protecting the high bank and the channel margins was cyclically disrupted. Consequently, sediment derived from the loessial overburden (including fossil soils) was gradually washed into the channel. The presence of fine carbonate concretions in the near-surface laminated oxbow sediments—morphologically identical to calcareous concretions found in loess—supports the redeposition of sediment from the loess bluffs into the upper horizon of the laminated lacustrine sequence. Based on the sedimentological changes detectable in the sediment, human influences can be demonstrated from the Late Neolithic onwards, even though they are known in the study area from the Early Neolithic [93,94,95,96].
The appearance of the Pannonian snail (Cepaea vindobonensis) and the Roman snail (Helix pomatia) at the beginning of the Holocene (c. 11,700–9000 cal BP) is consistent with the appearance of thermophilous terrestrial elements observed at Bátorliget [1,34,92]. Taken together, these data support the interpretation of the region as a refugial zone during the Late Glacial–Early Holocene transition. More specifically, they are consistent with the existence of a refugial belt corresponding to the Moesian corridor, or Balkan forest-steppe zone, which developed at the junction of the alluvial plain, the alluvial fan, and the mid-mountain belt along the eastern margin of the Great Hungarian Plain [46,92]. In this respect, the study area appears to have occupied a biogeographically transitional position in which both steppe and woodland elements could persist in close spatial association.
Based on arboreal changes, typical floodplain forests developed at the beginning of the Holocene: hardwood gallery forests of elm–ash–oak mixed with lime and plane, and softwood gallery forests dominated by willow and alder [96,97,98]. Vitis sylvestris likely appeared within these gallery forests. On the high bank plateau, a more open forest-steppe vegetation likely formed, serving as the source of natural steppe pollen [97,98]. However, based on the AP/NAP ratio, the vegetation remained at the forest/forest-steppe ecotone. It must be noted that reconstructions based on AP/NAP ratios are largely derived from zonal vegetation models of the East European Plain. Evidence suggests that vegetation in the Carpathian Basin was mosaic-like at macro-, meso-, and micro-levels, organised into patch-like (fractal) structures rather than zones. Thus, models from the East European Plain may have limited applicability here [92]. Within this framework, the pollen assemblage is best interpreted as recording two closely adjacent but ecologically distinct source areas [73,74,75,76,77,78,79,92,97,98]. In the immediate vicinity of the oxbow, well-watered alluvial surfaces supported hardwood gallery forest. By contrast, the plateau of the high bank, where the groundwater table was lower, likely retained extensive dry steppe patches, together forming a forest-steppe landscape. The pollen spectrum therefore reflects the combined contribution of mesic alluvial woodland and xeric vegetation from the elevated bank. This dual-source interpretation also helps to explain the pronounced vegetation reorganisation observed in this horizon, where mixed coniferous forests were replaced by temperate deciduous woodland. Rather than representing a uniform regional transformation, this shift is more plausibly understood as the establishment of an Early Holocene vegetation mosaic in which floodplain gallery forests expanded under increasingly favourable climatic conditions, while steppe elements persisted locally on the drier high-bank surfaces.

4.4. Mesolithic and Neolithic Anthropogenic Impacts

During the Early Mesolithic, the pollen record indicates a heterogeneous vegetation pattern in which steppe or forest-steppe persisted on the high bank, whereas closed deciduous woodland developed on the alluvial surface. This contrast suggests the coexistence of relatively open, dry habitats and more sheltered, mesic forest communities within a small area. Against this background, the increase in pollen of light-demanding woody taxa, particularly elm (Ulmus) and hazel (Corylus), may reflect the influence of hunter-gatherer-fisher communities [99,100,101,102,103]. These groups may have facilitated the spread of hazel (Corylus)—initially spontaneously, later perhaps consciously—by expanding edge vegetation, as hazel provided a significant, easily storable carbohydrate source. Beyond the nuts, hazel shoots may also have been utilised, as shown by Western European examples [104,105]. These data suggest that elements of food production (e.g., intensive gathering) were already practised in the Carpathian Basin during the Late Mesolithic, potentially indicating a “pre-neolithisation” phase in the Tövises channel environment prior to the settlement of Early Neolithic communities [106]. Pollen increases in hazel can also result from natural Early Holocene climatic amelioration and ecological expansion, so Corylus on its own is not proof of management. The profile shows no evidence of the treeless phase previously postulated for this period in the mid-20th century [107,108,109,110]. Instead, the data support the development of a temperate forest-steppe phase. This interpretation—dominance of temperate herbs on sand ridges and closed deciduous forest in depressions—has also been described in profiles from the Great Hungarian Plain [86,87].
Compared to the Early Holocene, the proportion of dominant oak, elm, lime, and hazel decreased slightly, while hornbeam and beech increased. Surprisingly, despite the lack of archaeological evidence for settled farming at this time (c. 10,600 cal BP), the dominance of the disturbance-indicator elder (Sambucus) increased. This likely indicates human impact associated with either Mesolithic communities [99,100,101,102,103,104,105] or the emergence of pre-Neolithic communities [58,74,75,76,79,101,102].
From the Middle Neolithic (c. 8500 cal BP), human impact became more pronounced, evidenced by the rise in weeds and cultivated plants and the decline of arboreal pollen. Cultivation initially involved wheat and possibly barley, with rye appearing at the end of the Copper Age [111]. This intensification correlates with the increasing number of archaeological sites in the vicinity (e.g., Ebéd-halom, Leányvár) [112,113,114,115,116,117].

4.5. Late Holocene Hydrology, Geochemical Cycles, and Peat Formation

During the Middle and Late Bronze Age, and the onset of the Late Holocene, the oxbow lake phase was interrupted. Significant quantities of slightly cross-bedded fluvial sand were deposited near the thalweg. It is postulated that during the cooler and wetter climate of the Late Bronze Age [118], the discharge and flow velocity of the Ér stream increased. Consequently, during flood events, the stream breached the natural levee of the Tövises channel, resulting in freshwater inundation at the channel’s deepest point near the thalweg. These fluvial events are reflected by the changes in mollusc fauna.
Following this fluvial intercalation, starting from the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age, the infilling of the channel accelerated, leading to the development of a clay and organic matter rich sediment, as well as faunal composition characteristic of a fen, exhibiting exceptionally high species richness, abundance, and biodiversity. In the gradually eutrophicating oxbow, pH levels likely dropped at the benthic level, mobilising water-soluble Fe and Mn. Concurrently, anthropogenic reduction of vegetation cover in the catchment facilitated the annual inwash of significant quantities of loessial parent material and soil, driving eutrophication and increasing water-soluble Ca and Mg concentrations. The rise in K and Na is attributed to increasing phytomass, particularly aquatic plants rich in these elements. Furthermore, the increase in water-soluble potassium may also be linked to direct human settlement around the channel, slash-and-burn deforestation, and the clearing of pastures and arable land. These activities produce ash with high concentrations of water-soluble potassium, which subsequently accumulated in the channel sediment.
Eutrophication and the closure of the fen reached an advanced stage during the Migration Period. By the Árpád Era (Early Middle Ages), aquatic vegetation and fen phytomass had completely covered the oxbow, resulting in a closed floating island and a peat-forming fen environment. Water-soluble Fe and Mn levels peaked, indicating a reductive fen environment. Water-soluble Mg, Na, and K also showed high values in this section, associated with increased phytomass. The peak in water-soluble K correlates with the maximum extent of human impact, including direct settlement in the immediate vicinity of the oxbow lake (a medieval earthwork, a trade route in the Ér valley, and associated villages), as well as deforestation and combustion activities (heating, cooking), which enriched the peat with potassium-rich ash. Following the development of the peat layer, the sediment dynamics and elemental cycling of the entire oxbow system shifted fundamentally from an oxidative to a reductive environment, where peat was able to accumulate. In the last approx. 1000 years, the proportion of amphibious terrestrial species peaked, while a significant portion of aquatic species retreated, replaced by species inhabiting temporarily drying water bodies and pools. The appearance of terrestrial mollusc individuals indicates the cyclical desiccation of the fen and its transformation into a marsh environment, particularly regarding the last 150 years.

4.6. Historical Land Use and Archaeological Stratigraphy

Between approx. 104 cm and 60 cm, the area exhibits a distinct and exceptionally strong human impact, correlating with site density. Likely from 170–124 cm upwards, the vegetation of the high bank was completely anthropogenically altered. These data support models suggesting that Middle Bronze Age tell cultures transformed the Great Plain’s environment into a structured economic landscape [110,116,117,119].
The sharp increase in weed and cereal pollen (104–60 cm) marks a peak in human impact. Crucially, the Roman-period Sarmatian defensive earthworks (ramparts and ditch systems)—specifically the Csörsz Ditch (Devil’s Dyke, Limes Sarmatiae) running along the high bank and introduced into the Ér valley—are located here. Archaeological excavations confirm significant Sarmatian settlement in the Late Imperial Period [120]. The Sarmatians, under Roman influence, likely drove this impact. Historical sources indicate that in 358–359 AD, Sarmatians living within the ramparts came under Roman protectorate. Following the Battle of Adrianople (378 AD) and the admission of the Goths, the Roman protectorate collapsed, and the ramparts lost their regional defensive function, though they remained significant landscape features used as roads or boundaries. The presence of the Ördög-árok signifies outstanding human impact at the end of the Imperial Period [121].
Following the end of the Imperial Period, the increase in AP suggests woodland regeneration under reduced human pressure, with a return from an anthropogenic steppe/forest-steppe mosaic toward a more natural forest-steppe state comparable to the Early Holocene. Such recovery is consistent with secondary succession after land-use abandonment, when reduced disturbance allows the re-establishment of alluvial forests and oak–hornbeam stands [74,75,76].
From the Hungarian Conquest Period, coinciding with the development of the closed peat bog, human impact rose again. The forest composition shifted from oak-elm-lime-ash dominance to stabilised oak-hornbeam forests. Pollen data suggest a mosaic medieval agricultural landscape: arable lands on the high bank, and pastures/meadows around the Pocsaj fen. The intense deforestation and agricultural activity from the Árpád Era onwards were likely exacerbated by the region’s role as a trade route between Transylvania and the Great Hungarian Plain.
The most significant feature of the last 400 years is a vigorous forest regeneration horizon. This correlates with the Ottoman conquest, the destruction of the medieval village network, and drastic depopulation. Beyond the climatic cooling of the Little Ice Age (16th–17th centuries), war economy likely drove the sharp increase in beech and hornbeam dominance [122], as these species were preferred for charcoal production essential for metallurgy, weapon manufacturing, and smithing.

4.7. Modern Ecological Transformations and Conservation Status

The last 1100–1000 years are characterised by marsh and fen environments, in which the proportion of amphibious terrestrial species reached its maximum, while most aquatic species declined, and taxa adapted to temporarily desiccating waterbodies and pools appeared. Among these faunal elements, Valvata cristata, Anisus spirorbis, Viviparus contectus, Bithynia tentaculata, Acroloxus lacustris, and Pisidium species reached their maximum abundances. In the terrestrial fauna, Succinea putris, Succinea oblonga, Oxyloma elegans, Carychium minimum, Vertigo angustior, Vallonia pulchella, and Vallonia costata reached abundance maxima, while the rare Vertigo moulinsiana also appeared. Furthermore, xeromesophilous terrestrial elements colonised the surface of the closed peat bog and marsh. The occurrence of Granaria frumentum, Cochlicopa lubrica, Pupilla muscorum, Chondrula tridens, Cepaea vindobonensis, and Helix pomatia indicates cyclical desiccation of the peatland and its transformation into swamp, particularly during the last 150 years. Based on changes in the malacofauna, the prevention of such desiccation and peat destruction must be regarded as a priority for the conservation of the biota of the Tövises palaeochannel.
Although river regulation and flood control measures since the 19th century have caused the peat to dry out on multiple occasions, the fen has fundamentally survived. Despite the introduction of non-native species (Acacia, Poplar), drainage channels, and mechanized land use (pasture desiccation), the fen vegetation and its high conservation value have persisted. Today, the Tövises fen at Pocsaj remains a species-rich wetland containing botanical rarities. Plant species considered rare in the Great Hungarian Plain, such as Carex elata, Carex paniculata, Menyanthes trifoliata, Salix aurita, Cicuta virosa, and Urtica kioviensis, are present in significant quantity. This survival is remarkable given the substantial anthropogenic pressure since the onset of river regulation, including canalisation, the diversion of the Ér stream, the establishment of an agricultural co-operative livestock facility (releasing sewage into the fen), and intensive, chemical-based mechanized agriculture in the surrounding area, all of which have significantly degraded the fen and its vegetation.

5. Conclusions

The basin originated as a high-energy channel of the ancestral Szamos river system between c. 19,000 and 16,000 cal BP. The palaeoecological record from this period is of particular biogeographical significance, as it supports the hypothesis that the Carpathian Basin functioned as a cryptic refugium during the Late Pleniglacial. The malacofauna and pollen spectra reveal a topographically controlled ecological mosaic: while elevated terrains supported a cold, boreal forest-steppe, sheltered and humid channel margins facilitated the persistence of temperate gallery forests containing Quercus, Ulmus, and Tilia. This unique mixture of psychrophilous and mesophilous taxa confirms the refugial capacity of the region prior to the Holocene onset.
The transition from the Late Glacial to the Early Holocene is marked by the abandonment of the active riverbed and the formation of a deep, oligotrophic to mesotrophic oxbow lake. This lacustrine phase, persisting for approximately 12,000 years, documents the major post-glacial climatic amelioration. The sequence records a clear biotic succession from boreal assemblages to a closed mixed deciduous forest, reflecting the thermal maximum of the Middle Holocene.
Human impact becomes detectable from the Middle Neolithic (c. 6000 cal BP) through signals of deforestation and agriculture. However, the most significant perturbation occurred at the Late Bronze Age–Early Iron Age boundary. A distinct fluvial sand intercalation punctuates the laminated lacustrine sediments, evidencing a hydrological resurgence driven by a regional cooling and wetting event. Following this climatic anomaly, the basin underwent rapid eutrophication and paludification. The transition from a peaty lake facies to complete terrestrialisation (peatland formation) was completed by the Late Medieval period (Ottoman occupation, 16th–17th centuries AD).
The uppermost section of the profile reflects the profound transformation of the landscape over the last millennium. Palynological data indicate that the natural forest-steppe has been entirely replaced by a cultural landscape, with arboreal pollen (AP) values falling to their lowest levels since the Last Glacial Maximum. Following 19th-century river regulation and drainage schemes, the fen ecosystem has suffered severe degradation. The recent appearance of xeromesophilous terrestrial fauna signals a critical desiccation trend within the peat deposits. Consequently, conservation efforts for the Tövises channel must prioritise the stabilisation of the local water table to preserve the remaining biodiversity and prevent the irreversible loss of this valuable palaeoenvironmental archive.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/soilsystems10050060/s1. Table S1: On-field lithology description and notes of the core.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.Z.V. and P.S.; funding acquisition, T.Z.V. and P.S.; investigation, T.Z.V. and P.S.; methodology, T.Z.V. and P.S.; visualization, T.Z.V.; writing—original draft, T.Z.V. and P.S.; writing—review and editing, T.Z.V.; supervision, T.Z.V., P.S. and E.P.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ministry for Culture and Innovation, National Research, Development and Innovation Fund, University Research Scholarship Programme (EKÖP), grant number EKÖP-24-3-SZTE-600.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

This research was conducted as part of the activities of the Long Environmental Changes Research Group and the Quaternary Research Group at the University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Sümegi, P.; Gulyás, S. (Eds.) The Geohistory of Bátorliget Marshland; Archaeolingua Press: Budapest, Hungary, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  2. Rónai, A. Az Alföld földtana. Acta Geol. Hung. 1985, 21, 445. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  3. Timár, G.; Sümegi, P.; Horváth, F. Late Quaternary dynamics of Tisza River: Evidence of climatic and tectonic controls. Tectonophysics 2005, 410, 97–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Borsy, Z. A Nyírség Természeti Földrajza; Akadémiai Kiadó: Budapest, Hungary, 1961. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  5. Borsy, Z. Az Alföld hordalékkúpjainak negyedidőszaki fejlődéstörténete. Földrajzi Értesítő 1989, 38, 211–224. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  6. Borsy, Z. Evoution of the North-eastern part of the Great Hungarian Plain in the past 50 000 years. Quationes Geogr. Spec. Issue 1990, 4, 65–71. [Google Scholar]
  7. Moldvay, L. A Berettyó-völgy és a déli Nyírség perem felszíni kifejlődése és kora. Földtani Közlöny 1961, 91, 292–299. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  8. Molnár, B. Changes in Area and Directions of Stream Erosion in the Eastern Part of the Hungarian Basin (Great Plain) during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Acta Minerol. Petrogr. 1965, 17, 39–52. [Google Scholar]
  9. Molnár, B. A Hajdúság pleisztocén eolikus üledéksora. Földtani Közlöny 1966, 96, 305–316. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  10. Sümegi, P.; Krolopp, E. Quartermalacological analyses for modeling of the Upper Weichselian palaeoenvironmental changes in the Carpathian Basin. Quat. Int. 2002, 91, 53–63. [Google Scholar]
  11. Urbancsek, J. A Nyírság. a Bodrogköz és a Rétköz, valamint a Bereg-Szatmári síkság vízföldtani kutatásban. Földrajzi Értesítő 1965, 14, 421–443. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  12. Borsy, Z. Blown sand territories in Hungary. Z. Für Geomorphol. 1991, 90, 1–14. [Google Scholar]
  13. Andrásfalvy, B. A Duna Mente Népének Ártéri Gazdálkodása Tolna és Baranya Megyében az Ármentesítés Befejezéséig; Tolna megye Tanács Levéltára: Szekszárd, Hungary, 1975. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  14. Ekéné Zamárdi, I. Érmelléki Kalauz 2; Debreceni Egyetem Hatvani István Kollégiumának Kiadványa: Debrecen, Hungary, 2008. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  15. Veliky, J. Érmelléki Kalauz. Egy Kistérség Rekonstrukciója—Érmellék; Egyetemi Kiadó: Debrecen, Hungary, 2005. (In Hungarian) [Google Scholar]
  16. Eltijani, A.; Molnár, D.; Makó, L.; Geiger, J.; Sümegi, P. Application of parameterized grain-size endmember modelling in the study of quaternary oxbow lake sedimentation: A case study of Tövises Bed sediments in the Eastern Great Hungarian Plain. Quaternary 2022, 5, 44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Eltijani, A.; Molnár, D.; Makó, L.; Geiger, J.; Sümegi, P. Applying grain-size and compositional cata analysis for interpretation of the quaternary oxbow lake sedimentation processes: Eastern great Hungarian plain. Stud. Quat. 2022, 39, 83–93. [Google Scholar]
  18. Eltijani, A.; Molnár, D.; Geiger, J. Characterizing sedimentary processes in abandoned channel using compositional data analysis and wavelet transform. GEM-Int. J. Geomath. 2023, 14, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Eltijani, A.; Molnár, D.; Geiger, J. Paleoenvironment multiproxy dataset of the Quaternary abandoned channel in Tövises bed, Great Hungarian Plain. Data Brief 2023, 49, 109344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Eltijani, A.; Molnár, D.; Geiger, J. Deciphering quaternary sediment dynamics: A synthesis of X-ray CT imaging and grain size endmember modelling. J. Sediment. Environ. 2024, 9, 615–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Walter, H.; Lieth, H. Klimadiagramm Weltatlas; G. Fischer: Jena, Germany, 1960. [Google Scholar]
  22. Országos Meteorológiai Szolgálat. Available online: https://www.met.hu (accessed on 10 August 2025).
  23. Országos Meteorológiai Szolgálat—Meteorológiai Adattár. Available online: https://odp.met.hu (accessed on 10 August 2025).
  24. RStudio Desktop—Posit. Available online: https://posit.co/download/rstudio-desktop/ (accessed on 10 August 2025).
  25. The Climatol R Package. Available online: http://www.climatol.eu (accessed on 10 August 2025).
  26. Aaby, B.; Digerfeldt, G. Sampling techniques for lakes and mires. In Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and Palaeohydrology; Berglund, B.E., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 1986; pp. 181–194. [Google Scholar]
  27. Vleeschouwer, F.; Chambers, F.; Swindles, G. Coring and sub-sampling of peatlands for palaeoenvironmental research. Mires Peat 2010, 7, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Munsell Color. Munsell Soil Color Charts; Munsell Color Company Inc.: Baltimore, MD, USA, 1954. [Google Scholar]
  29. Troels-Smith, J. Characterization of unconsolidated sediments. Dan. Geol. Unders. 1955, 4, 10. (In Danish) [Google Scholar]
  30. Dean, W.E. Determination of carbonate and organic matter in calcareous sediments and sedimentary rocks by loss on ignition; comparison with other methods. J. Sediment. Petrol. 1974, 44, 242–248. [Google Scholar]
  31. Heiri, O.; Lotter, A.F.; Lemcke, G. Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate content in sediments: Reproducibility and comparability of results. J. Paleolim. 2001, 25, 101–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Oldfield, F.; Thompson, R.; Barber, K.E. Changing atmospheric fallout of magnetic particles recorded in recent ombrotrophic peat sections. Science 1978, 199, 679–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Dearing, J.A. Environmental Magnetic Susceptibility: Using the Bartington MS2 System; Chi Publishing: Kenilworth, UK, 1994. [Google Scholar]
  34. Dániel, P. Results of the geochemical analysis of the samples from Bátoliget II profile. In The Geohistory of Bátorliget Marshland; Sümegi, P., Gulyás, S., Eds.; Archaeolingua Press: Budapest, Hungary, 2004; pp. 95–128. [Google Scholar]
  35. Berglund, B.E.; Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. Pollen analysis and pollen diagrams. In Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and Palaeohydrology; Berglund, B.E., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 1986. [Google Scholar]
  36. Stockmarr, J. Tablets with spores used in absolute pollen analysis. Pollen Spores 1971, 13, 614–621. [Google Scholar]
  37. Clark, R.L. Point count estimation of charcoal in pollen preparations and thin sections of sediments. Pollen Spores 1982, 24, 523–535. [Google Scholar]
  38. Fægri, K.; Kaland, P.E.; Krzywinski, K. Textbook of Pollen Analysis; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 1989. [Google Scholar]
  39. Moore, P.D.; Webb, J.A.; Collinson, M.E. Pollen Analysis, 2nd ed.; Blackwell Scientific Publications: Oxford, UK, 1992. [Google Scholar]
  40. Beug, H.J. Leitfaden der Pollenbestimmung fur Mitteleuropa und Angrenzende Gebiete; Pfeil: Munchen, Germany, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  41. Reille, M. Pollen et Spores D’europe et D’afrique du Nord; Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologie: Marseille, France, 1992; p. 543. [Google Scholar]
  42. Reille, M. Pollen et Spores d’Europe et d’Afrique du Nord, Supplément 1; Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologie: Marseille, France, 1995; p. 331. [Google Scholar]
  43. Reille, M. Pollen et Spores d’Europe et d’Afrique du Nord: Supplément 2; Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologie: Marseille, France, 1998; p. 521. [Google Scholar]
  44. Ložek, V. Quartarmollusken der Tschechoslowakei. Rozpr. Ústredniho. Ust. Geol. 1964, 31, 1–374. [Google Scholar]
  45. Krolopp, E.; Sümegi, P. Palaeoecological reconstruction of the late Pleistocene, based on loess malacofauna in Hungary. GeoJournal 1995, 36, 213–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Sümegi, P. Loess and Upper Paleolithic Environment in Hungary; Aurea Kiadó: Nagykovácsi, Hungary, 2005; pp. 1–312. [Google Scholar]
  47. Alexandrowicz, W.P. Molluscan assemblages of Late Glacial and Holocene calcareous tufa in Southern Poland. Folia Quat. 2004, 75, 3–309. [Google Scholar]
  48. Krolopp, E. Biostratigraphic division of Hungarian Pleistocene Formations according to their Mollusc fauna. Acta Geol. Hung. 1983, 26, 62–89. [Google Scholar]
  49. Soós, L. A Kárpát-Medence Mollusca-Faunája; Akadémiai Kiadó: Budapest, Hungary, 1943. [Google Scholar]
  50. Evans, J.G. Land Snails in Archeology; Seminar Press: London, UK, 1972; pp. 1–436. [Google Scholar]
  51. Welter-Schultes, F.W. European Non-Marine Molluscs, a Guide for Species Identification; Planet Poster Edition: Göttingen, Germany, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  52. Kerney, M.P.; Cameron, R.A.; Jungbluth, J.H. Die Landschnecken Nord-Und Mitteleuropas; Parey Press: Berlin, Germany, 1983; pp. 1–384. [Google Scholar]
  53. Horsák, M.; Chytrý, M.; Danihelka, J.; Kočí, M.; Kubešová, S.; Lososová, Z.; Otýpková, Z.; Tichý, L. Snail faunas in the Southern Ural forests and their relations to vegetation: An analogue of the Early Holocene assemblages of Central Europe? J. Molluscan Stud. 2009, 76, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Horsák, M.; Chytrý, M.; Pokryszko, B.M.; Danihelka, J.; Ermakov, N.; Hájek, M.; Hájková, P.; Kintrová, K.; Kočí, M.; Kunešová, S.; et al. Habitats of relict terrestrial snails in southern Siberia: Lessons for the reconstruction of palaeoenvironments of full-glacial Europe. J. Biogeogr. 2010, 37, 1450–1462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Horsák, M.; Chytrý, M.; Hájková, P.; Hájek, M.; Danihelka, J.; Horsáková, V.; Ermakov, N.; German, D.A.; Kočí, M.; Lustyk, P.; et al. European glacial relict snails and plants: Environmental context of their modern refugial occurrence in southern Siberia. Boreas 2015, 44, 638–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Sümegi, P. Refuting ideas based on a small batch of data: Malacothermometry aid in the reconstruction of mean July paleotemperatures in the Carpathian Basin for the last glacial of the Pleistocene. Archeometriai Műhely 2019, 16, 143–166. [Google Scholar]
  57. Hertelendi, E.; Csongor, É.; Záborszky, L.; Molnár, I.; Gál, I.; Győrffy, M.; Nagy, S. Counting system for high precision C-14 dating. Radiocarbon 1989, 31, 399–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Hertelendi, E.; Kalicz, N.; Raczky, P.; Horváth, F.; Veres, M.; Svingor, É.; Futó, I.; Bartosiewicz, L. Re-evaluation of the Neolithic in eastern Hungary based on calibrated radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 1995, 37, 239–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Molnár, M.; Janovics, R.; Major, I.; Orsovszki, J.; Gönczi, R.; Veres, M.; Leonard, A.G.; Castle, S.M.; Lange, T.E.; Wacker, L.; et al. Status report of the new AMS 14C sample preparation lab of the Hertelendi laboratory of environmental studies (Debrecen, Hungary). Radiocarbon 2013, 55, 665–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Molnár, M.; Rinyu, L.; Veres, M.; Seiler, M.; Wacker, L.; Synal, H.-A. EnvironMICADAS: A mini 14C AMS with enhanced gas ion source interface in the Hertelendi Laboratory of Environmental Studies (HEKAL), Hungary. Radiocarbon 2013, 55, 338–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Rinyu, L.; Orsovszki, G.; Futó, I.; Veres, M.; Molnár, M. Application of zinc sealed tube graphitization on sub-milligram samples using EnvironMICADAS. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. B 2015, 361, 406–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Janovics, R.; Futó, I.; Molnár, M. Sealed tube combustion method with MnO2 for AMS 14C measurement. Radiocarbon 2018, 60, 1347–1355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Bronk Ramsey, C. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 2009, 51, 337–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Reimer, P.J.; Austin, W.E.N.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C.; Butzin, M.; Cheng, H.; Lawrence Edwards, R.; Friedrich, M.; et al. The IntCal20 northern hemisphere radiocarbon age calibration curve (0–55 cal kBP). Radiocarbon 2020, 62, 725–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Blaauw, M.; Christen, J.A. Flexible paleoclimate age-depth models using an autoregressive gamma process. Bayesian Anal. 2011, 6, 457–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Birks, H.H.; Birks, H.J.B. Multi-proxy studies in palaeolimnology. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 2006, 15, 235–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Walker, M. Quaternary Dating Methods; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  68. Kabała, C.; Charzyski, P.; Chodorowski, J.; Drewnik, M.; Glina, B.; Greinert, A.; Hulisz, P.; Jankowski, M.; Jonczak, J.; Łabaz, B.; et al. Polish Soil Classification, 6th edition—Principles, classification scheme and correlations. Soil Sci. Annu. 2019, 70, 71–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Łachacz, A.; Nitkiewicz, S. Classification of soils developed from bottom lake deposits in north-eastern Poland. Soil Sci. Annu. 2021, 72, 140643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Somogyi, S. Hazán folyóhálózatának fejlődéstörténeti vázlata. Földrajzi Közlemények 1961, 9, 25–50. [Google Scholar]
  71. Papp, A. Fiatalkori vízrajzi változások a Tiszántúl középső részén történelmi adatok alapján. Földrajzi Közlemények 1960, 8, 77–83. [Google Scholar]
  72. Félegyházi, E. Adatok a Tisza és a Szamos folyóhálózatának alakulásához a felső-plenigalciális időszakában. Acta Geogr. Debrecina 1998, 34, 203–218. [Google Scholar]
  73. Magyari, E.K. Climatic Versus Human Modification of the Late Quaternary Vegetation in Eastern Hungary; Debrecen University: Debrecen, Hungary, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  74. Magyari, E.K.; Chapman, J.C.; Passmore, D.G.; Allen, J.R.M.; Huntley, J.P.; Huntley, B. Holocene persistence of wooded steppe in the Great Hungarian Plain. J. Biogeogr. 2010, 37, 915–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Magyari, E.; Sümegi, P.; Braun, M.; Jakab, G. Retarded hydrosere: Anthropogenic and climatic signals in a Holocene raised bog profile from the NE Carpathian Basin. J. Ecol. 2001, 89, 1019–1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Magyari, E.; Shiel, R.; Passmore, D. Introduction: The paleo-environment and settlement context of Polgár-10. In The Upper Tisza Project, Studies in Hungarian Landscape Archaeology, Book 4: Lowland Settlement in North East Hungary: Excavations at the Neolithic Settlement Site Polgár-10; Chapman, J., Gillings, M., Shiel, R., Gaydarska, B., Bond, C., Passmore, D., Félegyházi, E., Lumley, I., Jones, R., Edwards, J., et al., Eds.; Archaeopress: Oxford, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  77. Magyari, E.K.; Jakab, G.; Sümegi, P. Holocene vegetation dynamics in the Bereg Plain, NE Hungary—The Báb-tava pollen and plant macrofossil record. Acta Geog. Geol. Meteo. Debrecina 2009, 42, 39–56. [Google Scholar]
  78. Magyari, E.K. Late Quaternary vegetation history in the Hortobágy steppe and Middle Tisza floodplain, NE Hungary. Stud. Bot. Hung. 2011, 42, 185–203. [Google Scholar]
  79. Magyari, E.K.; Chapman, J.; Fairbairn, A.S.; Francis, M.; de Guzman, M. Neolithic human impact on the landscapes of North-East Hungary inferred from pollen and settlement records. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 2012, 21, 279–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Prentice, I.C. Pollen representation, source area, and basin size: Toward an unified theory of pollen analysis. Quat. Res. 1985, 23, 76–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Prentice, I.C.; Guiot, J.; Huntley, B.; Jolly, D.; Cheddadi, R. Reconstructing biomes from palaeoecological data: A general method and its application to European pollen data at 0 and 6 ka. Clim. Dyn. 1996, 12, 185–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Prentice, I.C.; Webb, T., III. BIOME 6000: Reconstructing global mid-Holocene vegetation patterns from palaeoecological records. J. Biogeogr. 1998, 25, 997–1005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Soepboer, W.; Sugita, S.; Lotter, A.F.; van Leeuwen, J.F.N.; van der Knaap, W.O. Pollen productivity estimates for quantitative reconstruction of vegetation cover on the Swiss Plateau. Holocene 2007, 17, 65–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Sugita, S. Pollen representation of vegetation in Quaternary sediments: Theory and method in patchy vegetation. J. Ecol. 1994, 82, 881–897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Jacobson, G.L.; Bradshaw, R.H.W. The selection of sites for palaeovegetational studies. Quat. Res. 1981, 16, 80–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Sümegi, P.; Magyari, E.; Daniel, P.; Hertelendi, E.; Rudner, E. A kardoskúti Fehér-tó negyedidőszaki fejlődéstörténetének rekonstrukciója. Földtani Közlöny 1999, 129, 479–519. [Google Scholar]
  87. Sümegi, P.; Szilágyi, G.; Gulyás, S.; Jakab, G.; Molnár, A. The Late Quaternary Paleoecology and Environmental History of the Hortobágy, an unique Mosaic Alkaline Steppe from the Heart of the Carpathian Basin, Central Europe. In Steppe Ecosystems Biological Diversity, Management and Restoration; Prieto, M.B.M., Diaz, T.B., Eds.; Nova Publishers: New York, NY, USA, 2013; pp. 165–194. [Google Scholar]
  88. Holdridge, L.R. Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data. Science 1947, 105, 367–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  89. Holdridge, L.R. Life Zone Ecology; Tropical Science Center: San Jose, Costa Rica, 1967. [Google Scholar]
  90. Szelepcsényi, Z.; Breuer, H.; Sümegi, P. The climate of Carpathian Region in the 20th century based on the original and modified Holdridge life zone system. Cent. Eur. J. Geosci. 2014, 6, 293–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Szelepcsényi, Z.; Breuer, H.; Kis, A.; Pongrácz, R.; Sümegi, P. Assessment of projected climate change in the Carpathian Region using the Holdridge life zone system. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 2016, 131, 593–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Willis, K.J.; Sümegi, P.; Braun, M.; Tóth, A. The Late Quaternary environmental history of Bátorliget, N.E. Hungary. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 1995, 118, 25–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Luca, S.A.; Suciu, C.I.; Dumitrescu-Chioar, F. Starčevo-Criş Culture in western part of Romania–Transylvania, Banat, Crişana, Maramureş, Oltenia and western Muntenia: Repository, distribution map, state of research and chronology. In Neolithization of the Carpathian Basin: Northernmost Distribution of the Starčevo/Körös Culture; Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences: Kraków, Budapest, 2010; p. 103. [Google Scholar]
  94. Biagi, P.; Spataro, M. New observations on the radiocarbon chronology of the Starčevo-Criş and Körös cultures. Rep. Prehist. Res. Proj. 2005, 6–7, 35–40. [Google Scholar]
  95. Biagi, P.; Grutze, B.; Boucetta, S. New data on the archaeological obsidians from the Banat and Transylvania (Romania). In A Short Walk Through the Balkans: The First Farmers of the Carpathian Basin and Adjacent Regions; Oxbow Books: Trieste, Italy, 2007; pp. 129–148. [Google Scholar]
  96. Küster, H. Herkunft und Ausbreitungsgeschichte einiger Secalietea-Arten. In Tuexenia: Mitteilungen der Floristisch-Soziologischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft; Floristisch-soziologischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft e.V.: Osnabrück, Germany, 1985; Volume 5, pp. 589–597. [Google Scholar]
  97. Pál, I.; Magyari, E.K.; Korponai, J.; Mesterházy, G.; Bede-Fazekas, Á.; Covătaru, C.; Darabos, G.; Jakab, G.; Füzesi, A.; Raczky, P. Holocene land cover change in the Pannonian (East-Central Europe) forest steppe: The role of prehistoric land exploitation phases. Quat. Environ. Hum. 2025, 3, 100077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Clark, J.G.D. A Late Mesolithic Settlement Site at Selmeston, Sussex. Antiqu. J. 1934, 14, 134–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Simmons, I.G.; Innes, J.B. Late Mesolithic land-use and its impacts in the English uplands. Biogeogr. Monogr. 1985, 2, 7–17. [Google Scholar]
  100. Smith, A.G. The influence of Mesolithic and Neolithic man on British vegetation: A discussion. In Studies in the Vegetational History of the British Isles; Smith, A.G., Walker, D., West, R.G., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1970; pp. 81–96. [Google Scholar]
  101. Smith, A.G.; Whittle, A.; Cloutman, E.W.; Morgan, L.A. Mesolithic and Neolithic Activity and Environmental Impact on the South-east Fen-edge in Cambridgeshire. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 1989, 55, 207–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. McComb, A.M.G. The ecology of hazel (Corylus avellana) nuts in Mesolithic Ireland. In Mesolithic Horizons: Papers Presented at the Seventh International Conference on the Mesolithic in Europe; McCartan, S., Schulting, R., Warren, G., Woodman, P.C., Eds.; Oxbow: Oxford, UK, 2009; pp. 225–231. [Google Scholar]
  103. Zvelebil, M. Plant use in the Mesolithic and its role in the transition to farming. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 1994, 60, 35–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. McQuade, M.; O’Donnell, L. Late Mesolithic fish traps from the Liffey estuary, Dublin, Ireland. Antiquity 2007, 81, 569–584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Holst, D. Hazelnut economy of early Holocene hunter–gatherers: A case study from Mesolithic Duvensee, northern Germany. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2010, 37, 2871–2880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Sümegi, P. Reconstruction of flora, soil and landscape evolution, and human impact on the Bereg Plain from late-glacial up to the present, based on palaeoecological analysis. In The Upper Tisa Valley; Hamar, J., Sárkány-Kiss, A., Eds.; Tiscia Monograph Series: Szeged, Hungary, 1999; pp. 173–204. [Google Scholar]
  107. Zólyomi, B. Budapest és környékének természetes növénytakarója. In Budapest Természeti Képe; Pécsi, M., Maros, S., Szilárd, J., Eds.; Akadémiai Kiadó: Budapest, Hungary, 1958; pp. 511–642. [Google Scholar]
  108. Zólyomi, B. Degree and rate of sedimentation in Lake Balaton. In Pleistocene Environment in Hungary; Pécsi, M., Ed.; MTA Földrajzkutató Intézet Kiadványa: Budapest, Hungary, 1987; pp. 57–79. [Google Scholar]
  109. Járainé Komlódi, M. Adatok az Alföld negyedkori klíma- és vegetációtörténetéhez. I. A vegetáció változása a Würm glaciális és a holocén folyamán, palinológiai vizsgálatok alapján. Bot. Közlemények 1966, 53, 191–201. [Google Scholar]
  110. Járainé Komlódi, M. Adatok az Alföld negyedkori klíma- és vegetációtörténetéhez II. Bot. Közlemények 1969, 56, 43–55. [Google Scholar]
  111. Zohary, D.; Hopf, M.; Weiss, E. Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  112. Mesterházy, K. Agyag kocsimodell Pocsajról. Archaeológiai Értesítő 1976, 103, 223–230. [Google Scholar]
  113. Németi, J.; Molnár, Z. A Tell Telepek Elterjedése a Nagykárolyi-Síkságon és az Ér Völgyében; Sapientia Könyvek 14: Kolozsvár, Romania, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  114. Bondár, M. Agyag Kocsimodellek a Kárpát-Medencéből (3500–1500 BC); Archeolingua Series Minor 32; Archeolingua: Budapest, Hungary, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  115. Máthé, M.S. Preliminary report on the 1977–1982 excavations at the Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement of Berettyóújfalu-Herpály. Part II. Bronze Age. Acta Archaeol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 1984, 36, 137–159. [Google Scholar]
  116. Máthé, M.S. Ásatások Berettyóújfalu-Herpály neolitikus és bronzkori tell-településen 1977–1982 között II. Bronzkor. A Bihari Múzeum Évkönyve 1986, IV–V, 129–149. [Google Scholar]
  117. Máthé, M.S. Bronze Age Tells in the Berettyó-Valley; Inventraria Praehistoria Hungariae I: Budapest, Hungary, 1988; pp. 27–122. [Google Scholar]
  118. Demény, A.; Kern, Z.; Czuppon, G.; Németh, A.; Schöll-Barna, G.; Siklósy, Z.; Leél-Őssy, S.; Cook, G.; Serlegi, G.; Bajnóczi, B.; et al. Middle Bronze Age humidity and temperature variations, and societal changes in East-Central Europe. Quat. Int. 2019, 504, 80–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Sümegi, P.; Gulyás, S.; Kertész, R.; Timár, G. Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition in the Carpathian Basin: Was there an Ecological Trap during the Neolithic? In Comparative Archaeology and Paleoclimatology; Baldia, M.O., Perttula, T.K., Frink, D.S., Eds.; Archeopress: Oxford, UK, 2013; pp. 119–126. [Google Scholar]
  120. Istvanovits, E.; Kulcsár, V. „Aligha Állhat Nekik Bármely Csatarend Ellent”…Egy Elfelejtett Nép, a Szarmaták; Jósa András Múzeum Kiadványa, 74: Nyíregyháza, Hungary, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  121. Bernát, P. Legendától a Valóságig: A Csőrsz Árkának Története. Múlt-kor Történelmi Online Magazin. Available online: https://mult-kor.hu/cikk.php?id=18364&pIdx=2 (accessed on 10 August 2025).
  122. Sümegi, P.; Molnár, D.; Náfrádi, K.; Páll, D.G.; Persaits, G.; Sávai, S.; Törőcsik, T. The environmental history of Southern Transdanubia during the Medieval and the Ottoman Period in the light of palaeoecological and geoarcheological research. In Per Sylvam et per Lacus Nimios; Kovács, G., Zatykó, C., Eds.; MTA BTK Archaeological Institute: Budapest, Hungary, 2016; pp. 15–73. [Google Scholar]
Soilsystems 10 00060 g001
Figure 1. The location of the study area within the Carpathian Basin. The red dot marks the position of Pocsaj and the Tövises fen on the eastern margin of the Great Hungarian Plain.
Figure 1. The location of the study area within the Carpathian Basin. The red dot marks the position of Pocsaj and the Tövises fen on the eastern margin of the Great Hungarian Plain.
Soilsystems 10 00060 g001
Soilsystems 10 00060 g002
Figure 2. (a) Map of the Tövises showing the meander loop and surrounding land. (b) Aerial footage of the vegetation. 1. Unpaved track/dirt road; ruderal vegetation. 2. Arable land. 3. Livestock facility established on the high bank (bluff); ruderal vegetation. 4. Planted Black locust (Robinia) forest mixed in places with elements of native softwood and hardwood alluvial (gallery) forest. 5. Alkali pasture mixed with marsh patches and non-tussock sedges. 6. Artificially dredged area covered by upwelling groundwater. 7. Riparian zone of non-peat-forming and peat-forming reed beds (Scirpo-Phragmitetum), mixed with cattails and bulrushes. 8. Floating island covering a dredged artificial lake; tussock sedge fen (Caricetum elatae), reed bed (Scirpo-Phragmitetum), and fen aquatic vegetation; the same assemblage appears on the marginal parts of the channel section free from direct anthropogenic impact. 9. Willow carr (Calamagrosti-Salicetum), with colonising poplar in the southern part of the channel, and mixed throughout with peaty reed, bulrushes, cattails, and sedges.
Figure 2. (a) Map of the Tövises showing the meander loop and surrounding land. (b) Aerial footage of the vegetation. 1. Unpaved track/dirt road; ruderal vegetation. 2. Arable land. 3. Livestock facility established on the high bank (bluff); ruderal vegetation. 4. Planted Black locust (Robinia) forest mixed in places with elements of native softwood and hardwood alluvial (gallery) forest. 5. Alkali pasture mixed with marsh patches and non-tussock sedges. 6. Artificially dredged area covered by upwelling groundwater. 7. Riparian zone of non-peat-forming and peat-forming reed beds (Scirpo-Phragmitetum), mixed with cattails and bulrushes. 8. Floating island covering a dredged artificial lake; tussock sedge fen (Caricetum elatae), reed bed (Scirpo-Phragmitetum), and fen aquatic vegetation; the same assemblage appears on the marginal parts of the channel section free from direct anthropogenic impact. 9. Willow carr (Calamagrosti-Salicetum), with colonising poplar in the southern part of the channel, and mixed throughout with peaty reed, bulrushes, cattails, and sedges.
Soilsystems 10 00060 g002
Soilsystems 10 00060 g003
Figure 3. Walter–Lieth diagram [21] of Pocsaj between 2014 and 2023. The red-coloured values show the mean temperature, and the blue-coloured values show the mean precipitation during the 12 months. Probable frost months are marked with blue colour on the bottom scale.
Figure 3. Walter–Lieth diagram [21] of Pocsaj between 2014 and 2023. The red-coloured values show the mean temperature, and the blue-coloured values show the mean precipitation during the 12 months. Probable frost months are marked with blue colour on the bottom scale.
Soilsystems 10 00060 g003
Soilsystems 10 00060 g004
Figure 4. Lithostratigraphic profile with calibrated and modelled radiocarbon ages, and the results of MS, LOI, grain-size distribution, water-soluble element concentrations.
Figure 4. Lithostratigraphic profile with calibrated and modelled radiocarbon ages, and the results of MS, LOI, grain-size distribution, water-soluble element concentrations.
Soilsystems 10 00060 g004
Soilsystems 10 00060 g005
Figure 5. Results of LOI analysis with sediment characterisation on a ternary diagram [68,69].
Figure 5. Results of LOI analysis with sediment characterisation on a ternary diagram [68,69].
Soilsystems 10 00060 g005
Soilsystems 10 00060 g006
Figure 6. Pollen percentages of trees and shrubs (arboreal pollen) and aquatic pollen taxa plotted against the lithostratigraphic profile with calibrated and modelled radiocarbon ages.
Figure 6. Pollen percentages of trees and shrubs (arboreal pollen) and aquatic pollen taxa plotted against the lithostratigraphic profile with calibrated and modelled radiocarbon ages.
Soilsystems 10 00060 g006
Soilsystems 10 00060 g007
Figure 7. Pollen percentages of herbaceous taxa (non-arboreal pollen) plotted against the lithostratigraphic profile with calibrated and modelled radiocarbon ages.
Figure 7. Pollen percentages of herbaceous taxa (non-arboreal pollen) plotted against the lithostratigraphic profile with calibrated and modelled radiocarbon ages.
Soilsystems 10 00060 g007
Table 1. Uncalibrated and calibrated radiocarbon ages (95.4% probability).
Table 1. Uncalibrated and calibrated radiocarbon ages (95.4% probability).
Depth (cm)Materialuncal BPσμ (cal BP)2σ
20bulk peat1204014080
140charcoal33001503550190
310charcoal11,33811313,240100
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Vári, T.Z.; Sümegi, P.; Pál-Molnár, E. Late Glacial Fluvial Transitions and Holocene Peat Accumulation: A High-Resolution Stratigraphic Study from the Eastern Great Hungarian Plain. Soil Syst. 2026, 10, 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems10050060

AMA Style

Vári TZ, Sümegi P, Pál-Molnár E. Late Glacial Fluvial Transitions and Holocene Peat Accumulation: A High-Resolution Stratigraphic Study from the Eastern Great Hungarian Plain. Soil Systems. 2026; 10(5):60. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems10050060

Chicago/Turabian Style

Vári, Tamás Zsolt, Pál Sümegi, and Elemér Pál-Molnár. 2026. "Late Glacial Fluvial Transitions and Holocene Peat Accumulation: A High-Resolution Stratigraphic Study from the Eastern Great Hungarian Plain" Soil Systems 10, no. 5: 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems10050060

APA Style

Vári, T. Z., Sümegi, P., & Pál-Molnár, E. (2026). Late Glacial Fluvial Transitions and Holocene Peat Accumulation: A High-Resolution Stratigraphic Study from the Eastern Great Hungarian Plain. Soil Systems, 10(5), 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems10050060

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop