Green/Blue Initiatives as a Proposed Intermediate Step to Achieve Nature-Based Solutions for Wildfire Risk Management

Abstract

Implementing nature-based solutions (NbSs) for wildfire risk management and other hazards has been challenging in emerging economies due to the high costs, the lack of immediate returns on investment, and stringent inclusion criteria set by organizations like the IUCN and domain experts. To address these challenges, this exploratory study proposes a new concept: green/blue initiatives. These initiatives represent intermediate steps, encompassing small-scale, community-driven activities that can evolve into recognized NbSs over time. To explore this concept, experiences related to wildfire prevention in the Biobío region of Chile were analyzed through primary and secondary source reviews. The analysis identified three initiatives qualifying as green/blue initiatives: (1) goat grazing in Santa Juana to reduce fuel loads, (2) a restoration prevention farm model in Florida called Faro de Restauración Mahuidanche and (3) the Conservation Landscape Strategy in Nonguén. They were examined in detail using data collected from site visits and interviews. In contrast to Chile’s prevailing wildfire policies, which focus on costly, large-scale fire suppression efforts, these initiatives emphasize the importance of reframing wildfire as a manageable ecological process. Lastly, the challenges and enabling factors for adopting green/blue initiatives are discussed, highlighting their potential to pave the way for future NbS implementation in central Chile.

1. Introduction

The occurrence of wildfires, among other hazards, has been a significant contributor to carbon emissions and ecosystem destruction in highly fire-prone rural territories, as well as wildland–urban interfaces [1]. In the aftermath of the disaster, the focus is on reconstructing burned houses, reinstating damaged gray infrastructure, and restoring the ravaged ecosystems through reforestation as quickly as possible [2,3].

In that context, nature-based solutions (NbSs) have been championed as a possibility to tackle the urgent planetary issues because they are “actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges (e.g., climate change, food and water security or natural disasters) effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits.” [4], p. xii.

NbSs refer to actions that leverage urban nature to address environmental and social challenges, promoting a solution-oriented approach that applies ecological knowledge to sustainability issues [5]. These solutions are characterized by the integration of nature and natural processes into urban areas, landscapes, and marine environments through locally adapted, resource-efficient, and systemic interventions [6]. Also, the NbS embodies a comprehensive concept, encompassing a range of strategies for a holistic ecosystem management. This enables congruence with other large-scale responses to global challenges. This synergy has been demonstrated through initiatives such as blue/green infrastructure (BGI), ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR), green solutions for sustainable living (GSSL), and ecosystem-based adaptation and solutions (EAS) [7,8].

In that context, Europe has led a long-term effort to implement NbSs on a large-scale, generating approximately 60% of the case studies reported in 2023. China and the rest of the world have been considerably behind in this regard [7]. In the first case, the NbS has been structured since the year 2000 according to specific domains, including forestry, agriculture and bioeconomy, nature and biodiversity, climate, wildfire disaster risk management, and air quality. These initiatives have received substantial financial support from the European Union and national governments [7,9,10]. Since 2016, the Chinese government has massively implemented specific NbSs to restore and manage key ecosystems. This initiative, formally known as the Mountains–Rivers–Forests–Farmlands–Lakes–Grasslands–Deserts project, has received substantial financial backing amounting to approximately USD 275 million [11].

Conversely, in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, the implementation of NbSs has been comparatively deficient in comparison to regions such as Europe and China. This decelerated uptake can be ascribed to numerous factors, including elevated project preparation costs, constrained access to platforms that disseminate successful case studies to guide the implementation, an absence of awareness regarding the long-term benefits of NbS, and the necessity of robust frameworks to support their integration into existing infrastructural paradigms [12,13].

To address this issue, green/blue initiatives are proposed as a promising starting point for any country or subnational government aiming to implement NbSs or related strategies in the future (BGI, Eco-DRR, GSSL, and EAS). Green/blue initiatives could be defined as the integration of natural spaces and elements, including parks, trees, water bodies, and wetlands, with the objective of providing environmental, social, and economic benefits in both urban and rural settings [14]. Moreover, these initiatives encompass small-scale efforts spearheaded by neighborhoods and other community organizations to achieve climate objectives and mitigate everyday risks through a collaborative, community-driven approach [15].

This paper introduces a differentiation between green/blue initiatives and NbSs, emphasizing distinctions in their theoretical foundations and implementation processes. Green/blue initiatives are characterized by their adaptability and scalability, often commencing as modest, localized endeavors initiated by the stakeholders. These initiatives have the potential to undergo a gradual growth and evolution process, thereby acquiring the necessary momentum to attain the requisite scale and complexity to align with NbSs. However, it is imperative to note that NbSs must adhere to more structured and rigorous criteria to ensure their effectiveness. This differentiation underscores the potential for green/blue initiatives to function as a transitional phase leading to the implementation of fully realized NbS strategies.

Table 1. Comparing green/blue initiatives with NbSs in their criteria about climate change and risk management challenges.

Criterion	NbS Classification According to Sowińska–Świerkosz and García [16]	NbS Classification According to IUCN [17]	NbS Classification According to Cohen et al. [4]	Green/Blue Initiative Proposed
(1) Ecosystem Integration	Functioning ecosystems	Determining societal challenge(s)	Integral to policies and actions	Includes parks, trees, water bodies, etc.
(2) Scale	Large-scale approach	Designed at landscape scale	Applied at a landscape scale	Focused on small scales (neighborhoods)
(3) Scope of Actions	Actions must not be random	Mainstreaming across spatial and temporal scales	Implemented alone or with other solutions	Relies on random initiatives nurtured by stakeholders
(4) Governance Model	Bottom-up governance	Inclusive governance (scientific committee)	Not detailed	Relies on community-based initiatives
	Communitarian management approach
(5) Financial Feasibility	Generates financial benefits	Economic feasibility	Not detailed	Operates with minimal resources
(6) Benefit Distribution	Fair benefit distribution	Balances trade-offs	Not detailed	Benefits persist post-termination
(7) Innovation and Adaptation	Encourages innovative/contextualized approaches	Adaptive management	Not detailed	Not detailed
(8) Biodiversity Impact	Positive impact on biodiversity	Biodiversity net gain	Not detailed	Not detailed
(9) Post-Implementation Goals	Includes long-term objectives	Not detailed	Not detailed	Not detailed
(10) Comparison to Gray Infrastructure	More benefits than gray infrastructure	Not detailed	Not detailed	Not detailed

Source: © The authors, 2025, based on Cohen-Shacham et al. [4], Sowińska–Świerkosz and García [16], and the IUCN [17].

presents the criteria proposed for defining green/blue initiatives, linking them to the criteria outlined in the NbS definitions provided by Cohen-Shacham et al. [4], Sowińska–Świerkosz and García [16], and the IUCN [17] (Table 1). The validity of these criteria is further substantiated by the findings of the review study by Debele et al. [7], which encompassed a total of 547 case studies. The study revealed that only a small fraction (4%) of the interventions was implemented on a large landscape scale, while the majority were carried out on local (50%) or watershed (46%) scales. This pattern underscores the practical challenges of implementing large-scale NbSs, highlighting the need for a new definition that better reflects the scales and methodologies commonly observed in practice.

A notable illustration of these challenges is the 20 × 20 Initiative [18]. which aims to restore afforested, burned, and eroded land. By the year 2025, this initiative had successfully planted approximately 8.2 million hectares with both exotic and native species. However, its actions have been dispersed throughout central Chile, exhibiting a lack of cohesive community involvement and a significant reliance on international funding, as well as the national government’s willingness to support operations on such a substantial scale. This example demonstrated that large-scale NbSs often face significant limitations without robust local engagement and sustainable financial and institutional frameworks. This further emphasizes the need for alternative approaches or redefined concepts tailored to real-world applications.

Consequently, the efficacy of the design and implementation of NbSs in addressing climate challenges and reducing risks is called into question, given their limited appeal to stakeholders in South America thus far. The potential of green/blue initiatives to serve as an intermediate step in the more rapid achievement of non-market-based sustainability and related concepts in Latin America is a subject that merits further investigation.

In this context, the objective of this study is to initiate an academic discourse by proposing a novel concept of a green/blue community initiative as a potential pathway toward the NbS approach for addressing socionatural disasters driven by climate change uncertainties. To illustrate this concept, the authors conducted a pilot case study in the Biobío region of central Chile, documenting and analyzing green/blue initiatives related to wildfires. A preliminary research list was compiled, encompassing all initiatives centered on wildfire protection from 2023 to 2024. After the most significant wildfire in the summer of 2022–2023, three examples were selected for presentation, as outlined below: Buena Cabra, Faro de Restauración, and Conservation Landscape Territory Nonguén. The selection of these initiatives was predicated on their alignment with the defining characteristics of green/blue community initiatives.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Focus and Case Study

In Chile, the presence of Mediterranean-type ecosystems, characterized by pronounced seasonality and a significant human impact [19] creates ideal conditions for the ignition and spread of fires, which in recent years have caused extensive material damage [20]. Additionally, the effects of climate change have become increasingly evident at the local level, with a clear correlation between recent climatic variations and the rise in damage caused by wildfires. These factors have fostered conditions for extreme fire behavior, exacerbated by heightened water stress in vegetation, which promotes rapid fire spread. As a result, the likelihood of large-scale wildfires has significantly increased [21].

According to wildfire occurrence and damage statistics in Chile, the two most significant recent wildfire seasons, 2016–2017 and 2022–2023, affected areas of 570,000 and 429,000 hectares, respectively [22]. Addressing this issue is crucial, as a substantial portion of the impacted areas is attributed to large-scale wildfires, which have severe environmental and economic consequences [23].

Within the country’s macrozones, the central macrozone, particularly the Biobío region, is one of the areas that has undergone the most significant changes due to wildfires. The region has experienced rapid changes in land use and a shortage of available land in urban areas, which have led to an urban expansion into the interface zones and rural territories [24,25], affecting hotspots [26], which have further increased the risk of wildfires predominantly ignited by human actions, whether intentional or accidental. This issue has been particularly evident following the megafires in 2017, 2023, and 2024 [2,3,21,24,25].

To prevent biodiversity loss and improve a substantiable development, the Chilean government has categorized six areas where an NbS approach can be implemented, including one focusing on wildfire prevention: (1) woods and wildfire disaster risk management, (2) agriculture, (3) peatlands (wetlands), (4) marine ecosystems, (5) cities, and (6) the Andean cryosphere [27]. As part of the Paris Agreement and the Climate Change Conference of the Parties, these areas coincide with Chile’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) [10]. However, NbS implementation in Chile has encountered challenges that have contributed to its unpopularity among stakeholders, primarily due to differing levels of NbS knowledge, interests, and territorial priorities [28]. Nevertheless, new environmental laws require enhanced action across all sectors, which have not established an official platform to visualize the possible NbSs described in the official documents [1,29,30].

Accordingly, citizen participation and community action have been relegated to a non-essential role and informative instances. The community and landowner engage through technical cooperation grants for ecosystem restoration funded by agencies such as the Global Environment Fund (GEF) [31], the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [3], public agencies such as Corporación Nacional Forestal (CONAF), and the Ministry of Environment (MMA) [32]. Conversely, a few initiatives by individual farmers with an ecological commitment and public–private partnerships, such as the Red de Prevención Comunitaria [33], have subverted this assigned role of empowering the communities. However, the lack of a comprehensive registry of these initiatives has resulted in their isolation, limiting their collective impact.

2.2. Methodology

The present article provides a review of green/blue initiatives that have been implemented with the aim of restoring areas of land that have been burned by wildfires, as well as rehabilitating areas that have been degraded. The initial step entailed a comprehensive analysis of primary and secondary sources pertaining to the prevention of wildfires from 2023 to 2024 in the Biobio region. A thorough examination of scientific research databases, including WOS and SCOPUS, was conducted. The focus of this examination was on the titles and abstracts of the articles, utilizing keywords in both Spanish (PREVENCIÓN, INCENDIOS FORESTALES, and REGIÓN DEL BIOBÍO) and English (PREVENTION, WILDFIRES, and BIOBIO REGION). In view of the limited results that were anticipated, the researchers also conducted a Google search using the same keywords in both languages. The objective of this preliminary investigation was to collate essential information and insights to inform future efforts in promoting and implementing green/blue initiatives across the region. In accordance with the case study research design [21], the experiences, projects, and areas that could represent the research focus were presented in an Excel table.

In a subsequent phase, several elements were subjected to evaluation, namely, (1) the capacity of the case study to be categorized as a green/blue initiative, with the classification specifics outlined in Table 1; (2) the implementation status of the initiatives; and (3) the nature of community participation. Initiatives that align with these criteria are designated as green/blue initiatives, signifying their role as a transitional step towards the eventual adoption of nature-based solutions (NbSs) for the mitigation of wildfire risk in the future. The summary of findings comprised the following information for each initiative: its name, methodology, funding agencies, green/blue initiative classification, implementation status, and community participation.

In the third phase of the research, field visits to selected case studies that met the criteria were conducted during the final quarter of 2024 and the first half of 2025. During these visits, conversations were held with each initiative coordinator to gain detailed insights into the implementation process and the nature of community engagement involved. The questions centered on the specific strategies employed for wildfire protection and prevention, the challenges encountered in raising wildfire awareness, and the ways in which the community has been engaged in these efforts. Furthermore, coordinators shared their experiences regarding successful outcomes and the resources that have been most beneficial in enhancing the effectiveness of their initiatives. Moreover, the purpose of the visit was to ascertain the state of implementation. Each case study is presented by a descriptive text.

These informal interviews and spontaneous conversations were not audio-recorded but were documented through detailed fieldnotes. The research team engaged in iterative reflection to identify recurrent themes, patterns, and insights, which were integrated into the broader narrative analysis of each case. While no formal coding was applied, the experiential accounts shared by local coordinators were critically interpreted in relation to this study’s objectives.

Lastly, the results of the preliminary review and the experiences of local communities were discussed in terms of how they address socionatural disasters resulting from uncertainties associated with climate change, specifically in the context of wildfires. This analysis delineates the challenges and strategies employed in relation to key concepts like community engagement, adaptability, and sustainability.

3. Results

The database and Google search yielded a total of ten initiatives (see

Table 2. Identified wildfire risk prevention projects Biobio region from 2023 to 2024.

	Initiative Title, Location	Criteria for the Classification to Be Considered as Green/Blue Initiative						Initiatives Have Been Implemented (Yes/No)	Type of Community Participation Involved
		(1) Includes Parks, Trees, Water Bodies, etc.	(2) Focused on Small Scales	(3) Relies on Random Initiatives Nurtured by Stakeholders	(4) Relies on Community-Based Initiatives	(5) Operates with Minimal Resources	(6) Benefits Persist Post-Termination
1	The Conservation Landscape strategy, Territory Nonguén	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Expert consultation with extensive citizen involvement through community meetings and community mapping.
2	Urban region of the Nonguén Valley, the Entorno Educador Waldorf School, Concepción	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes, but only pilot project	The community of the school actively participates in this initiative.
3	Buena Cabra, Santa Juana	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	The neighbors actively participate in this initiative, attending seminars and collaborating with the Municipalidad de Santa Juana, neighbors’ associations, UDEC, Agrupación de Apicultores, Fundación El Árbol, and UDD.
4	Faro de Restauración Parcela Mahuidanche, Proyecto Restauración de Paisajes + Bosques (2021–2024)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	The neighbors actively participate in this initiative. Also, they collaborate with their funders in numerous activities.
5	The Ecosystems Protecting Infrastructure and Communities Project, Las Trancas Valley	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	After the 2015 wildfires, participation in implementation was sporadic and highly dependent on voluntarism. Participation was only informative.
6	Cortafuegos y cinturones de protección	Yes	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Private initiative, with no direct participation.
7	Fire Prevention Plan, Parque Cerro Caracol, Concepción	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Opportunity for participation through volunteering. No active selection in defining these activities.
8	Prepared Communities Program	No	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Only workshops	No direct participation
9	Local Landscape Restoration Committee, different communes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Only definition of actions	Actors taking part in Local Landscape Restoration Committee.
10	Soil Conservation and Water Accumulation, Landscape Restoration Project, Poñén	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Participation of neighbors in training and activities, along with decision-making regarding actions; however, resources are limited to the GEF program.

; for fully detailed table, including description, funding, and sources). The majority of these are initiated or funded by national or regional entities. Also, while these initiatives may appear arbitrary, they consistently underscore the significance of participation and community engagement.

The researchers identified three case studies that served to exemplify the efficacy of green/blue initiatives in addressing the issue of wildfires. This identification was performed based on the exclusionary criteria that were employed. These initiatives represented a modest yet substantial sample showing that positions are on a pathway showing that they are on a pathway toward being NbSs. However, it should be noted that the feasibility of this approach is contingent upon the availability of resources and the capacity to provide ongoing technical support. The initiatives under discussion are characterized by the significant role of community participation, which is evident in a variety of forms. The categories of partnerships under discussion are as follows:

• Grassroots organizations comprising a small number of individuals;
• Government projects that promote public–private partnerships through community meetings;
• Public partnerships facilitated by community engagement efforts.

As illustrated in Figure 1, the map delineates the vulnerability of the Biobío region to wildfires, while also indicating the location of the case studies that form the basis of this article. The ensuing subsections provide exhaustive explanations of each initiative.

3.1. Buena Cabra in Santa Juana

This grassroots organization, comprising a small number of individuals, was formed in 2017 at Bosques de Chacay in Santa Juana. The proposal of a green/blue initiative, involving strategic grazing with goats, was put forward as a preventative measure against wildfires. Figure 2a,b illustrate the goats’ movement across the pasture site in January 2025, in preparation for the onset of the wildfire season, which typically commences in February.

The selective consumption of vegetation by the goats resulted in the creation of natural firebreaks, thereby reducing the risk of wildfire spread. The Buena Cabra project was subjected to a rigorous test during the devastating extreme wildfire event of 2023 in Santa Juana, which engulfed 55% of that territory [34]. The method was effective in preventing the flames from consuming the park and, by extension, from having an impact on the nearby community. This strategic grazing method has been implemented using a mobile mesh with low-intensity electrical pulses, thereby enabling the planned rotation of goat herds through pre-identified areas.

According to the Buena Cabra shepherds, this green/blue initiative achieved a substantial reduction in fine fuels, that is, the highly flammable herbaceous and shrubby vegetation, through the mechanisms of grazing and trampling [35]. Concurrently, it contributed to soil regeneration by reincorporating organic matter from the goats. This initiative is in conflict with conventional methods, such as the utilization of herbicides and the implementation of controlled burns. Strategic grazing is a less invasive practice that preserves the structure of forest strata, avoids polluting emissions, and maintains the ecosystem’s health.

The project is a collaborative effort involving several key actors, including the Municipalidad de Santa Juana, four neighbors’ associations from Florida, Universidad de Concepción, Agrupación de Apicultores, Fundación El Árbol, and Universidad de Desarrollo. In addition, academics from the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity participated in the collaborative effort to evaluate the efficacy of grazing in reducing vegetation fuel and to ascertain local community perceptions of this strategy. Currently, their last associations have been with City Lab Biobío and City Science Lab Research + Innovation in Andorra, which are part of the MIT City Science international network. Consequently, this modest green/blue initiative has the potential to transition into an NbS if additional resources are acquired to facilitate the maintenance of their herd and the expansion of their network of associates.

3.2. Faro the Restauración Parcela Mahuidanche in Florida: Landscape Restoration Project + Bosques (2021–2024)

This project aims to cultivate public–private partnerships through community engagement, signifying the fruition of a lifetime’s endeavors by a landowner in Florida. This initiative represents a significant milestone in land stewardship. The landowner employed a technique termed “diseño predial”, which is the Spanish equivalent of the broader terms agroecological farming systems [36], landscape agroecology [37], and agroecology [38]. This diseño predial enabled farmers to modify their crops, water sources, and housing to be ecologically sustainable and minimize waste.

In contradistinction to conventional monoculture crops, this methodology enabled farmers to cultivate “fire-smart farming” [39]. Consequently, the integration of diverse pyrophytic vegetation species into the crops was implemented, thereby preventing erosion and rainwater harvesting in designated areas with the technical support of government agencies (CONAF and MMA) and transnational financing (GEF and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)) from the projects Sustainable Mediterranean Communities (2015–2020) and Restauración de Paisajes + Bosques (2021–2024) between the 2017, 2022, and 2024 megafires [31].

Furthermore, a range of other techniques were employed, including the utilization of green firebreaks and the application of soil protection measures comprising chicken manure from Fundo El Peumo, and the pruned pyrophytic species have been subjected to a process of composting (see Figure 3a,b). It is evident that the green/blue initiative adopts a strategy that is oriented towards an eco-DRR approach [8].

This community-focused environment has been characterized by a series of technical workshops, student field trips, and communal wildfire awareness activities. These activities have been organized in cooperation with various entities, including forestry companies (CMPC-ARAUCO), the Red de Prevención Comunitaria de Incendios Forestales, Servicio Nacional de Prevención ante Desastres (SENAPRED), and the Municipality of Florida.

3.3. Conservation Landscape Strategy in Nonguén, Concepción

The Nonguén Territory, covering 23,355.1 hectares, which surrounds the Nonguén National Park, was historically characterized by forestry plantations, native forests, and shrublands. However, the increased subdivision of land has significantly altered the land cover within the region. The key factors contributing to environmental stress include heightened wildfire risks due to housing in flood-prone areas surrounded by dense vegetation, landscape homogeneity from monoculture forestry, and inadequate firebreaks.

The public partnership Conservation Landscape Territory Nonguén (PCTN) initiative launched by the Association of the districts of Concepción, Chiguayante, and Hualqui aims to integrate environmental conservation with urban dynamics through a participatory governance model. It emphasizes robust institutional structures and necessary resource allocation, including formal participation mechanisms and regulatory frameworks aligned with its objectives.

The strategic plan outlines specific action strategies to guide implementation towards a quality landscape development [40]. It also features a catalog of NbSs addressing environmental and social challenges related to sustainability within the territory with 14 NbSs directly related to wildfire prevention [41].

The strategic plan has prioritized three proposals, whose execution has been initiated with the participation of the local community. However, discussions with local partners regarding these proposals are ongoing to transform pilot projects into durable investments that ensure viability and local ownership [40], and the first positive impacts regarding wildfire prevention can be observed in the territory. Figure 4a shows the initial planting process of native species in an area of the wetland Pichimapu that is prone to wildfires. Vegetation in wetlands helps stabilize the soil, reducing erosion that can be exacerbated by wildfires. This event served as a meeting point for multiple community organizations, university teams, public agencies, and municipalities.

Figure 4b illustrates a workday focused on the ecological restoration of the Leonera-Borde Cerro watershed. Various organizations in the community have developed native reforestation initiatives in the hills, concerned about ecological degradation due to the monoculture of pine and eucalyptus. These initiatives have faced the challenges posed by wildfires that have affected the area in recent years, particularly the wildfires in December 2022 and February 2023.

4. Discussion

The unanticipated consequences of climate change have had a profound effect on the traditional Mediterranean landscape of central Chile, such as other Mediterranean zones around the world [42], thereby intensifying the repercussions of socionatural hazards on the population and ecosystems [29]. The ongoing megadrought, which has persisted for a period exceeding 15 years, has served to exacerbate this change, disrupting both traditional weather patterns and established crop regimes [43]. Consequently, a decline in summer rainfall and intensification in the frequency of heat waves are expected in the future [22], which will help to increase the already severe and intense fire seasons, as stated by Boiser et al. [44], Garreaud et al. [45], and González et al. [46].

Given this evidence, it is vital that the country prepares for an escalation in megafires and sixth-generation fires, which could impact the short-term and long-term recovery of ecosystems and human settlements [47]. Subsequently, this phenomenon will transform industrial plantations (i.e., pine and eucalyptus) and native forests into a global concern as they may shift “from a carbon sink to a net carbon source” [10], p. 85. In this context, Ùbeda and Sarricolea [30] recommended that the Chilean forestry industry and stakeholders should adopt traditional wildfire risk management strategies. The implementation of “more stringent controls on agricultural burning, creating more frequent and numerous firebreaks in plantations, restoring urban corridors with less flammable native species, and cleaning watersheds—river edges” was suggested [30], p. 8.

Meza et al. [19], Marquet et al. [27], MINAGRI [48], MMA [31] and González et al. [49] recommended several strategies [19] for wildfire prevention, mitigation, and recovery/restoration in Chile. However, these recommendations are related to mitigate the spread of pyrophytic species patches (e.g., Eucalyptus globulus and Acacia caven), including reforesting with native species in agricultural and forestry regions affected by fires. Native species proposed for reforestation include Boldo (Peumus boldus), Quillay (Quillaja saponaria), and Peumo (Cryptocarya alba). All of them are clearly not NbSs.

Hernández-Duarte et al. [47] give the only dissenting perspective on this issue, proposing a strategy to counteract the progression of drought in central Chile. Their approach emphasizes providing additional water sources and implementing water-harvesting initiatives to restore traditional Mediterranean forest dynamics [42], thereby contributing to wildfire mitigation efforts.

The results of this exploratory experience demonstrated that these initiatives in the Biobio region have primarily concentrated on the technical aspects of wildfire mitigation measures, the formation of local committees, or training sessions but have not been framed within the broader theoretical framework of NbSs. These efforts have concentrated on the technical aspects of wildfire mitigation, often neglecting meaningful community engagement. Furthermore, the responsible parties have promoted the traditional approach of treating fire as an exogenous disturbance that must be suppressed, rather than recognizing it as an inherent component of Mediterranean ecosystems [42]. This perspective overlooks the necessity of designing wildfire-resilient landscapes [50,51] and fostering wildfire-resilient communities [52] to ensure a sustainable future.

This article has highlighted three local initiatives that demonstrate the potential of green/blue initiatives for wildfire prevention across various scales, with effectiveness in preventing small fires as everyday hazards [15]. If nurtured and scaled, these initiatives could evolve into nature-based solutions (NbSs) in the future. Rather than perceiving these efforts as disconnected or random, this proposal reflects the diverse possibilities within the evolving spectrum of NbSs and the community resilience models discussed in the literature [19,50,52]. It also acknowledges the challenges faced by many Global South countries, which often lack the resources to implement large-scale, multistakeholder activities without external financing.

The Buena Cabra grassroots project in Santa Juana reduced fuel loads and revived traditional land management practices, contributing to the “socio-ecological memory” described by Barthel et al. [53]. From the perspective of NbS classification [54], Buena Cabra represents a co-produced, bottom-up solution that integrates ecological functions with community-based governance. It also aligns with the concept of autonomous adaptation [55], which is particularly significant in rural areas with limited institutional presence.

The Faro de Restauración initiative in Florida promoted wildfire mitigation and prevention activities, integrating local participation with external technical assistance. This approach aligns with the relational values framework of NbSs [56]. The initiative effectively demonstrated how green/blue strategies can address ecological restoration and environmental education simultaneously, thereby strengthening long-term resilience.

The Landscape Conservation Strategy in Nonguén embodies a more formalized governance model involving municipalities, community associations, and academic institutions. Initial small-scale interventions have been implemented, reflecting planned adaptation pathways that incorporate policy instruments and long-term planning to integrate the fire risk into urban development. This aligns with findings by Frantzeskaki et al. [57], who emphasize that while structured NbSs can enhance landscape-scale coordination, they may also face challenges such as bureaucratic inertia and funding discontinuities. The replicability of these interventions heavily depends on the robustness of local institutions and inter-agency collaboration.

This comparative analysis highlights key variables for the success of green/blue initiatives in fire-prone regions: community engagement, adaptability, an ecological focus, and institutional flexibility to ensure funding and technical expertise. In this regard, the Buena Cabra initiative excelled in fostering local ownership and ecological sensitivity. The Landscape Conservation Strategy in Nonguén provided a long-term vision that relies on sustained governance, while the Faro de Restauración succeeded by embedding ecological goals within culturally appropriate practices.

This article sought to illustrate how these three green/blue initiatives could be a hybrid approach by blending grassroots innovation, considering small-scale activities and a strong institutional support to offer scalable, context-sensitive strategies. Therefore, the main contribution of this study is not the presentation of novel mechanisms per se, but rather the connection of local practices to expand the body of knowledge of case studies from underrepresented countries from the Global South as stated by Debele et al. [7] to the broader NbS framework [13,16,17]. By doing so, the study provided a grounded critique of current wildfire governance in Chile and identified operational pathways for conservation institutions that wish to invest in such initiatives, integrating ecological knowledge and community values (i.e., Global Environmental Fund and Fondo Naturaleza, among others).

4.1. Challenges and Enablers in Chile for Green/Blue Initiatives and NbSs

These green/blue initiatives are creating a path towards the NbS approach because (1) they lever local knowledge into their formulation, making their initiatives contextualized and resource-efficient; (2) they foster collaboration within their territories, enabling the change from citizen participation to community action; (3) they could be considered pilot initiatives that could be nourished and expanded with funds from public–private partnerships and transnational and national agencies; and (4) these initiatives’ adaptable governance models can be replicated in various urban and peri-urban contexts facing similar environmental challenges.

Furthermore, the experiences offered valuable insights into how we may build resilience against the uncertainties of climate change and wildfires. In addition, they facilitated sustainable practices to promote regulatory changes for inclusive and efficient governance following the new Chilean legislative framework. Continuous learning and adaptation are essential to enhance their impact and ensure long-term success in wildfire management and disaster risk reduction. Examples include several NbSs, such as those promoted in Africa [12] and Latin American countries, such as Mexico, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil [13].

Following a comprehensive analysis of the diverse experiences, this study identifies both challenges and enablers that merit consideration in future endeavors to expand the existing publicly funded NbS. These findings offer a framework for evaluating the implementation sites of green and blue initiatives. With additional resources and a dedicated commitment, the potential exists to establish NbSs, thereby fostering a more sustainable urban environment.

4.2. Summary, Limitations of This Study, and Further Research

Firstly, there was no national-level, inter-ministerial platform available to identify NbSs using the criteria of Sowińska–Świerkosz and García [16], nor to locate green/blue initiatives. Such a platform would have been useful for quickly finding the necessary information. This limitation restricted access to initiatives that could be considered NbSs, but which were not appropriately recorded. Consequently, the replicability of this research may be limited as other researchers may encounter the same issue in the future. Secondly, as previous research on this topic is scarce, the availability of historical data with which to observe the evolution of the green/blue initiatives is limited.

However, only the research of Schneider-Valenzuela [58] and Yevenes et al. [59] in certain regions of Chile was available in major research databases. These studies considered some green/blue initiatives as NbSs, despite not meeting the criteria from the relevant literature of Marquet et al. [27], Cohen-Shacham et al. [60], the UICN [17], and Sowińska–Świerkosz and García [16]. Lastly, qualitative research always tends to have small sample sizes, which can lead to an important researcher bias and make it difficult to generalize the findings to other territories or contexts.