The Impact of Shared Team Task-Specific Experiences on Fire Brigade Rescue Effectiveness

Abstract

Experience is crucial for enhancing task performance. However, rescue experience, as a key contributor to individual and team capabilities within fire brigades, has not received sufficient attention in fire safety management research. Based on the concept of shared team task-specific (STTS) experience, this study explored how it affects the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades. To test the proposed model, data were collected from a sample of 452 firefighters in China. The results indicated that STTS experience, including both task-specific experience and shared team experience, significantly improves the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades. Moreover, shared mental models, including both teammate mental models and task mental models, mediate the relationship between STTS experience and rescue effectiveness, while team tenure strengthens the effect of STTS experience on shared mental models and subsequent team performance. These findings enhance the understanding of fire brigade performance and contribute to improving emergency rescue effectiveness. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and future research directions are provided and discussed.

1. Introduction

Fire brigades are the vanguard of emergency response, shouldering the important responsibility of protecting people’s lives and property. With the rapid development of industrialization and urbanization, emergencies are becoming increasingly complex, and the difficulty of rescue has also increased significantly, which has put forward higher demands on the emergency response capabilities of fire brigades [1]. Meanwhile, firefighters face significant occupational risks during rescue missions, especially in fire rescue. In the United States, fire rescue causes 44.8% of firefighter casualties [2]. This highlights an urgent management issue: how to improve the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades in fires.

To address this issue, numerous studies have emphasized the importance of firefighters’ risk perception [3], fatigue status [4], and firefighting equipment [5]. However, rescue experience, as a key contributor to individual and team capabilities, has not received sufficient attention in fire safety management research. Experiential learning theory suggests that individuals acquire knowledge and develop skills through practical experience [6]. On the one hand, by repeatedly performing similar tasks, individuals can accumulate task-specific experiences, thereby improving task efficiency [7]. On the other hand, the cooperation and conflicts among team members in past collaborations form shared team experiences, which help enhance the team’s joint performance [8,9]. In their seminal work, Luciano et al. featured shared team task-specific (STTS) experience, which is defined as the extent to which team members have worked together before on a similar type of task, thereby integrating both task and team dimensions of experience [10]. For a task-oriented, collaborative team like the fire brigade, a comprehensive understanding of its rescue experience should cover both task characteristics and team collaboration dynamics. However, the relationship between STTS experiences and fire brigade rescue effectiveness is still unclear.

When it comes to team performance, shared mental models are considered a critical element. They are the collective cognitive frameworks that members of a team hold about tasks and group processes and are typically built upon prior experiences and common knowledge [11]. Many studies have shown that shared mental models reveal the implicit coordination mechanisms (e.g., reducing misunderstandings and coordinating actions) among members of high-performing teams [11,12], and this effect is particularly evident in emergency response teams [13]. Thus, shared mental models play an important role in promoting team performance, especially in team experiential learning [14]. In addition, it is worth noting that the accumulation and learning of experience are closely related to the time factor. Team tenure affects members’ perception and utilization of experience [15]. Naturally, the longer the work experience, the more one can accumulate and assimilate. Therefore, research on STTS experiences should take into account the duration of experience.

Although the impact of team experience on team performance has been widely recognized, research on the utilization mechanism of fire rescue experiences is still in its infancy. This study focuses on STTS experiences and aims to reveal the association mechanism between STTS experiences and fire brigade rescue effectiveness by combining the influence of shared mental models and team tenure. As far as we know, there are few empirical studies that integrate these variables to understand the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades. This study makes two main contributions to the field of team performance research. First, this study introduces the concept of STTS experience into the research on fire brigades. In our framework, STTS experience is regarded as an input variable, and its systematic impact on the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades is confirmed. Second, this study explains how STTS experiences affect team effectiveness through the mediating role of shared mental models and the moderating role of team tenure. Shared mental models, as the common understanding of tasks and collaboration among team members, have a significant predictive effect on team effectiveness. Team tenure, reflecting the degree of tacit understanding among members through long-term cooperation, further affects the utilization efficiency of STTS experiences. This study not only expands the theoretical understanding of team performance, but also provides scientific guidance for the practical management of fire brigades.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses

2.1. Theoretical Background: Team Effectiveness

Team effectiveness, as a key indicator of teamwork, has long been a hot topic in organizational behavior research. With advancements in psychology and cognitive science, researchers have gradually developed frameworks that emphasize the interaction process in understanding team effectiveness. For example, the IPO (Input–Process–Output) model proposed by McGrath points out that team input factors (e.g., organizational context, group composition, and environmental factors) work together on team processes, which in turn determine how these inputs are transformed into team outputs (e.g., performance and member satisfaction) [16]. Building on this foundation, the IMOI (input–mediator–output–input) model expands the process component into a broader range of mediating variables, such as team cognitive states that emerge during interactions (e.g., shared mental models and transactive memory systems), and can better explain the variability of team performance and viability [17].

In high-risk and dynamic emergency rescue environments, team interactions are often constrained by factors such as the work environment and workload, leading to obstacles in strategic communication. In this context, knowledge sharing at the team level is crucial to effective teamwork [18]. This view is supported by relevant theories that highlight the impact of team cognition on team effectiveness. For instance, the expertise coordination theory suggests that the transfer of unstructured knowledge such as experience and intuition plays a more significant role in team-level practice [19]. Similarly, the team adaptation theory highlights the importance of shared mental models in facilitating situational awareness and coordinated actions [20]. It is important to note that shared mental models and transactive memory systems, as the two main forms of emergent cognitive states in teams, operate through different mechanisms. The transactive memory system focuses on integrating the distributed expertise of team members and realizing the rapid knowledge retrieval through specialized division of labor [21]. The shared mental models emphasize the establishment of a common cognitive structure among team members, reducing communication costs and enhancing coordination efficiency through a unified knowledge framework [11]. These theoretical distinctions suggest that fire brigades, as typical task-oriented, non-knowledge-intensive teams, may be more influenced by the establishment of team shared mental models. Specifically, the experience accumulated by fire brigades during rescue operations serves as a key input, building shared mental models through the team-level interaction process and profoundly influencing team effectiveness.

Based on the above theoretical analysis, this study proposes an “experience–cognition–effectiveness” framework to systematically explain how the experiential knowledge of fire brigades forms team effectiveness.

2.2. STTS Experiences and Fire Brigade Rescue Effectiveness

Extensive research has revealed a strong relationship between experience and team task performance [22,23]. On the one hand, when current tasks resemble those previously performed, teams can achieve positive outcomes by generalizing prior task knowledge [24]. Studies have shown that teams consistently engaged in similar tasks benefit from experiential learning, which can enhance team performance [25]. On the other hand, the collaborative process during tasks can form collective knowledge, which helps to improve team coordination and efficiency in future operations. For instance, team training and communication have been shown to enhance team performance by building collective experience [26]. Furthermore, the concept of STTS experience, introduced by Luciano et al. in their research on the effectiveness of surgical teams, integrates the two dimensions of team experience in task requirements and collaborative dynamics [10]. In firefighting, both task knowledge and teamwork have been identified as key determinants of rescue effectiveness, which highlight the importance of STTS experience.

As far as we know, no prior research has applied the concept of STTS experience to the field of firefighting. Based on a discussion of its adaptability to fire rescue teams, we introduce this concept into the study of fire brigade rescue effectiveness. First, much like surgical teams, fire rescue teams operate under high-pressure conditions, requiring tight collaboration and task orientation. They must achieve their goals through role allocation and real-time coordination in dynamic environments. Second, the experience of fire rescue teams originates from two primary sources. On the one hand, firefighters accumulate task-specific experience through repeated engagement in similar rescue operations (e.g., firefighting, emergency rescue, and operating special equipment). On the other hand, they acquire shared team experience through various means, including joint task participation, informal communication, experiential exchange, and formal practices such as post-incident evaluations and case reviews [27]. Therefore, to fully understand the impact of experience on fire brigade performance, it is necessary to consider both task-specific experience and shared team experience.

The impact of STTS experience on fire brigade rescue effectiveness can be theoretically supported from three perspectives: experiential learning, team cognition, and team adaptability. From the perspective of experiential learning, STTS experiences reflect how firefighters improve their capabilities through previous task engagement, drills, and standardized equipment usage learning [7]. From the perspective of team cognition, STTS experiences emphasize how firefighters gain collaborative knowledge through interactions with teammates, thereby fostering more effective teamwork [8]. From the perspective of team adaptability, STTS experiences explain how firefighters cope with environmental changes in dynamic and uncertain task scenarios through knowledge, communication, and synchronous cognition [20]. The connection of these theories provides a valuable theoretical basis, indicating that STTS experiences can enhance the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades. Taken together, we propose the following hypotheses:

H1a. 

A fire brigade’s task-specific experience is positively related to fire brigade rescue effectiveness.

H1b. 

A fire brigade’s shared team experience is positively related to fire brigade rescue effectiveness.

2.3. Shared Mental Models as a Mediator

Shared mental models refer to the collective cognitive framework and mental representations that team members hold regarding key elements in team-related contexts, including knowledge about tasks, equipment, work relationships, and the task environment [28]. Further research suggests that shared mental models function as both a cognitive state and a knowledge structure, encompassing not only external knowledge (e.g., task-related expertise and communication knowledge) but also internal cognition (e.g., thoughts and beliefs) [29]. Studies on the antecedents of shared mental models are well established, and these have confirmed that teamwork fosters shared cognition [30]. In team settings, effective communication and information sharing are crucial for the development of teammate mental models [11]. Through discussion and interaction, team members align their cognitive processes and understanding, thereby establishing a common cognitive foundation.

Additionally, shared task experiences contribute to the development of consistent task mental models among team members when addressing similar tasks [31]. For fire brigades, which are tasked with specific assignments, shared mental models should encompass both task-related and teammate-related mental models. Therefore, the accumulation of collaboration among teammates and task experiences collectively facilitates the development of shared mental models. In other words, fire brigades’ STTS experiences positively influence the shared mental models. Based on this, we propose the following hypotheses:

H2a. 

A fire brigade’s task-specific experience is positively related to both the teammate mental model and task mental model.

H2b. 

A fire brigade’s shared team experience is positively related to both the teammate mental model and task mental model.

Previous research has demonstrated that shared mental models reveal the implicit coordination mechanisms within high-performance teams, providing insights into how these teams thrive and adapt in turbulent and complex environments. The classic models of team effectiveness, such as the IPO model and the IMOI model, both highlight the critical role of shared mental models as mediators of organizational performance and effectiveness [16,17]. For instance, Ilgen et al. suggest that team outcomes are determined by inputs (e.g., team structure, member skills, and task characteristics) and mediating processes (e.g., emergent cognitive states like shared mental models) [17]. Similarly, Kraiger and Wenzel propose a theoretical framework for shared mental models that includes antecedent variables, components of shared mental models, and outcome variables [32]. In this framework, personal, team, and situational factors affect the formation of shared mental models, which, in turn, influence team effectiveness and performance.

Based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that STTS experiences, as an input variable, impact fire brigade rescue effectiveness by affecting shared mental models. In other words, shared mental models play a mediating role in the relationship between STTS experiences and fire brigade rescue effectiveness.

H3. 

Shared mental models (including the teammate mental model and task mental model) are positively related to fire brigade rescue effectiveness.

H4. 

Shared mental models (including the teammate mental model and task mental model) mediate the relationship of both task-specific experience and shared team experience with fire brigade rescue effectiveness.

2.4. Team Tenure as a Moderator

Experience encompasses the cumulative effects of time, indicating that time is a potential factor in the effectiveness of experience building and sharing. Tesluk and Jacobs define individual-level team tenure as the duration spent in various organizational units or roles [33]. By this definition, we define the working time of individuals engaged in team activities as team tenure. Longer learning periods allow individuals to absorb lessons more effectively. Similarly, a team’s experience duration affects how its members interpret and apply that experience [15].

In a fire brigade, longer work tenure typically reflects more operational tasks and team collaborations, which leads to a greater accumulation of experience and its conversion into cognitive knowledge. While changes in team membership during tenure may alter the established shared mental models, prior collaborative experiences can help individuals more accurately recognize and learn from experiences, thus facilitating the development of shared mental models with new team members [34]. Therefore, team tenure is posited to moderate the effect of STTS experiences on shared mental models. Accordingly, the following exploratory hypotheses are proposed:

H5. 

Team tenure moderates the relationship between STTS experiences (including task-specific experience and shared team experience) and shared mental models (including the teammate mental model and task mental model), which means that a high level of team tenure strengthens the expected positive connection between STTS experiences and shared mental models.

H6. 

Team tenure moderates the indirectly positive effect of STTS experiences (including task-specific experience and shared team experience) on fire brigade rescue effectiveness through shared mental models, which means that a high level of team tenure strengthens the patterns of such relationships.

To sum up, this study establishes a moderated mediation model to explore both the mediating role of shared mental models and the moderating role of team tenure in the relationship between STTS experiences and fire brigade rescue effectiveness. This model aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism influencing fire brigade rescue effectiveness and offer a scientific basis for practitioners designing interventions to enhance rescue performance. The theoretical framework is illustrated in Figure 1.

3. Methods

3.1. Procedure

We investigated fire brigades across the provinces of Guangdong, Henan, Hubei, and Heilongjiang in China. The focus of this study is on the fire brigades and their firefighters. In line with the research objectives and practical considerations, the fire squadron was chosen as the primary unit of analysis. Initially, we conducted a preliminary survey that involved both interviews and a pre-test of the questionnaire. We interviewed retired firefighters, fire brigade captains, instructors, and active combatants to gather feedback on the questionnaire content. Based on their suggestions, we refined the wording and expressions to ensure the questionnaire was scientifically sound and aligned with the firefighters’ language style, making it clear and comprehensible. Subsequently, we conducted a pre-test at a special operations fire brigade in Wuhan in September 2023. Following the analysis of the pre-test results, we removed any items that did not meet the requirements and conducted a 2.5 h interview with the brigade instructor. This process led to the final version of the questionnaire used for the formal survey and data collection, which were then initiated.

The research survey began in early September 2023 and lasted for two months. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed, with 486 returned. After excluding 34 invalid questionnaires due to missing information or patterns in responses, 452 valid questionnaires were retained. The response rate was 81%, and the effective response rate was 75.33%.

3.2. Measures

• STTS experiences. We defined STTS experiences as the level of proficiency with which fire brigade members had previously performed similar tasks together. Luciano et al. in their study indexed STTS experience by quantifying the number of times surgeons collaborated to complete surgeries [10]. However, given that the current mission recording system of China’s fire squadrons counts attendance times on a squadron basis rather than on an individual basis, it is challenging to fully use objective evaluation methods to quantitatively evaluate firefighters’ STTS experience. Based on the prior discussions, STTS experience consists of two dimensions: task-specific experience and shared team experience. Task-specific experience reflects an individual’s knowledge base and skill proficiency in a particular task, with Rooney and Osipow‘s task-specific occupational self-efficacy scale providing a foundational reference for measuring this dimension [35]. For shared team experience, we referred to Rentsch et al.’s team experience scale, which measures the collective experiences among team members [8]. Combined with the research background of fire rescue tasks, STTS experiences were measured by a 7-point Likert scale ranging from completely disagree (1) to completely agree (7), which comprises 12 items across the two dimensions: task-specific experience (8 items, e.g., “How proficient are you in operating emergency rescue equipment?”) and shared team experience (4 items, e.g., “The team frequently discusses and reflects on unsatisfactory combat missions”).
• Fire brigade rescue effectiveness. In this study, the concept of rescue effectiveness includes not only task performance but also the collaborative effectiveness of team members in rescue operations. Therefore, this research perspective involving firefighters’ perceptions of teamwork effectiveness warrants the use of subjective perception reports. These reports provide unique insights into operational challenges such as team coordination and command communication that cannot be fully captured by objective metrics such as response time alone. The use of subjective perceptions as indicators of system performance is well established in the fields of organizational behavior and emergency response. For instance, Huntsman et al., in their study on the ability of empowerment practices to enhance adaptive performance in emergency response organizations, employed self-report survey data from firefighters to capture their performance [36]. Similarly, Bonetto et al. used self-report questionnaires to assess individual creativity and reactions to emergency situations, further demonstrating the utility of subjective measures in this context [37]. To sum up, we measured the fire brigade rescue effectiveness from two perspectives: task performance and collaboration satisfaction. Referring to the work of [38], task performance was measured using two items (e.g., “The team works effectively and efficiently in achieving its goals”). Using another scale from [39], four items were used to capture collaboration satisfaction (e.g., “I am delighted to be a part of this team”). All items were designed on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from completely disagree (1) to completely agree (7).
• Shared mental models. The main methods for measuring shared mental models include questionnaires, cognitive mapping, and behavioral observation. Among these, questionnaire-based approaches have emerged as the most established and empirically validated method for assessing shared mental models. This methodology typically employs standardized scales to evaluate team members’ consensus regarding task-related and role-specific elements. While cognitive mapping or observational methods could offer complementary perspectives, they face practical barriers in high-stakes, real-world contexts like fire rescue operations and may be difficult to implement in large-scale studies. Considering our research objectives, we referred to the validated measurement instrument from [38] and used a 7-point Likert scale ranging from completely disagree (1) to completely agree (7) to measure shared mental models from two dimensions: teammate mental models (5 items, e.g., “I understand my teammates’ combat styles and habits”) and task mental models (5 items, e.g., “Team members have a consensus on the norms for task completion”).
• Team tenure. We defined team tenure as the length of time a firefighter has served in their current team. This variable was determined based on the personal data of the firefighters interviewed. In our survey, we collected this data through a single question: “How long have you been working with your current team?”
• Control variables. In order to control the influence of individual differences and environmental complexity on shared experience and team effectiveness, we incorporated several control variables to enhance the robustness of the results. First, individuals’ cognitive levels affect how they acquire and transform experiences as well as how they develop mental models [40]. Therefore, it is important to account for basic cognitive differences among firefighters. Specifically, we considered two individual factors: education level and current position. Education level reflects the basic cognitive ability of firefighters. Those with higher education may have advantages in information processing, problem solving, and knowledge integration, which in turn can influence how they learn from and apply task-related experiences [41]. Current position, on the other hand, pertains to firefighters’ roles within the team. Firefighters in different positions have different responsibilities, decision-making authority, and information interaction in task execution, all of which can affect their accumulation and sharing of task experience [42]. Second, environmental factors such as task difficulty are also important control variables. High-difficulty tasks typically require more complex cognitive processing and greater team collaboration, thus placing higher demands on the acquisition and application of experience. Additionally, such tasks may encourage more frequent communication and coordination among team members, promoting the development of shared mental models [43]. In summary, we selected education level, current position, and task difficulty as control variables. Education level and current position were obtained from the firefighters’ personal profile, while task difficulty was assessed based on the firefighters’ ratings of the difficulty of the tasks they had participated in over the past year.

3.3. Data Processing

Relevant statistical analyses were conducted in SPSS 25.0. First, we calculated the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations of all variables. Then, we applied the PROCESS macro for SPSS to examine the moderated mediation model. To test hypotheses 1–4, we used the Hayes PROCESS simple mediation Model 4. To test hypotheses 5–6, we examined the Hayes PROCESS moderated mediation Model 7. Additionally, we employed the bias-corrected bootstrapping method, calculating 95% confidence intervals (CIs) with 5000 random samples. An effect was considered statistically significant if the 95% bias-corrected CIs for the parameter estimate did not include 0 [44].

4. Results

4.1. Preliminary Analysis

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix.

Variable	Mean	S.D.	1	2	3	4	5	6
Task-specific experience	5.223	1.267	1.000
Shared team experience	4.855	1.338	0.438 *	1.000
Teammate mental model	5.056	1.314	0.515 *	0.510 *	1.000
Task mental model	5.079	1.218	0.484 *	0.493 *	0.541 *	1.000
Team tenure	2.396	1.226	0.384 *	0.360 *	0.494 *	0.473 *	1.000
Fire brigade rescue effectiveness	5.142	1.341	0.613 *	0.532 *	0.628 *	0.607 *	0.343 *	1.000

Note: N = 452, * p < 0.001, two-tailed.

presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation for all research variables analyzed in the study. The results indicated that both task-specific experience and shared team experience were significantly related to teammate mental model, task mental model, and fire brigade rescue effectiveness, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.484 to 0.603. Additionally, there was a significant correlation of both the teammate mental model and task mental model with fire brigade rescue effectiveness. Overall, these correlations align with the research hypotheses proposed in this study and support further examination of the validity of our theoretical framework.

4.2. STTS Experiences and Rescue Effectiveness

We used linear regressions to test H1. The results showed that both task-specific experience (β = 0.649, p < 0.001) and shared team experience (β = 0.535, p < 0.001) were positively related to fire brigade rescue effectiveness, which indicated that H1a and H1b were both supported. In addition, we found that task-specific experience had a stronger influence on fire brigade rescue effectiveness compared with shared team experience.

4.3. Testing of the Mediation Effect

We used the PROCESS macro (Model 4) [45] to test the mediating role of shared mental models between STTS experiences (including task-specific experience and shared team experience) and fire brigade rescue effectiveness after controlling for education, task difficulty, and current position. The results are reported in

Table 2. Results for the mediation model regression testing.

	Teammate Mental Model		Task Mental Model		Fire Brigade Rescue Effectiveness
Predictors	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5	Model 6
Constant	2.346 ***	2.599 ***	3.213 ***	3.381 ***	0.034	0.323
	(7.280)	(8.312)	(10.591)	(11.583)	(0.116)	(1.084)
Education	0.048	0.067	−0.115	−0.098	0.047	0.054
	(0.594)	(0.820)	(−1.509)	(−1.289)	(0.738)	(0.806)
Task difficulty	0.015	0.006	−0.044	−0.053	0.005	0.010
	(0.303)	(0.125)	(−0.931)	(−1.125)	(0.128)	(0.246)
Current position	−0.053	−0.024	−0.079 *	−0.053	0.018	0.034
	(−1.306)	(−0.599)	(−2.082)	(−1.414)	(0.576)	(1.029)
Task-specific experience	0.533 ***		0.467 ***		0.331 ***
	(12.688)		(11.804)		(8.164)
Shared team experience		0.500 ***		0.449 ***		0.193 ***
		(12.447)		(11.969)		(4.807)
Teammate mental model					0.317 ***	0.363 ***
					(7.798)	(8.592)
Task mental model					0.320 ***	0.357 ***
					(7.419)	(7.878)
R2	0.269	0.262	0.246	0.251	0.563	0.522
F	41.199 ***	39.677 ***	36.445 ***	37.438 ***	95.559 ***	81.115 ***

Note: N = 452;the t-values are in parentheses. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.

.

First, the results showed that task-specific experience was positively related to the teammate mental model (β = 0.533, p < 0.001) and task mental model (β = 0.476, p < 0.001). Similarly, shared team experience was positively related to the teammate mental model (β = 0.500, p < 0.001) and task mental model (β = 0.449, p < 0.001). Thus, H2a and H2b were supported.

Second, the results showed that the teammate mental model (β = 0.317, p < 0.001; β = 0.363, p < 0.001) and task mental model (β = 0.320, p < 0.001; β = 0.357, p < 0.001) were positively related to fire brigade rescue effectiveness, which supports H3. Furthermore, after the task mental model and shared team experience were taken into the regression, the relationships of task-specific experience (β = 0.331, p < 0.001) and shared team experience (β = 0.193, p < 0.001) with fire brigade rescue effectiveness remained significant.

Finally, the bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method showed that the indirect effects of STTS experiences on fire brigade rescue effectiveness via shared mental models were all significant. Specifically, for task-specific experience, the indirect effect was 0.318 (SE = 0.039, 95% CI = [0.226, 0.379]), and for shared team experience, the indirect effect was 0.341 (SE = 0.037, 95% CI = [0.269, 0.412]). The 95% CIs did not include zero, indicating that shared mental models partially mediated the relationships between STTS experiences and fire brigade rescue effectiveness, indicating that H4 was supported.

Figure 2 provides a visual summary of the results, highlighting the key relationships among the variables more intuitively.

4.4. Testing of the Moderated Mediation Effect

The PROCESS macro (Model 7) by reference [45] was used to examine the moderating effects of team tenure on the paths from STTS experiences to shared mental models. The results are summarized in

Table 3. Results for the moderated mediation model regression testing.

Predictors	Teammate Mental Model				Task Mental Model				Fire Brigade Rescue Effectiveness
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4		Model 5		Model 6
	β	95% CI	β	95% CI	β	95% CI	β	95% CI	β	95% CI	β	95% CI
Constant	4.571 ** (8.623)	[3.429, 5.298]	3.427 ** (7.099)	[2.567, 4.260]	4.366 ** (8.508)	[2.759, 4.580]	4.007 ** (8.796)	[2.693, 4.300]	0.034 (0.116)	[−0.532, 0.600]	0.323 (1.084)	[−0.263, 0.907]
Education	−0.016 (−0.219)	[−0.173, 0.141]	0.01 (0.139)	[−0.141, 0.162]	−0.164 ** (−2.325)	[−0.304, −0.025]	−0.147 * (−2.083)	[−0.281, −0.012]	0.047 (0.738)	[−0.079, 0.174]	0.054 (0.806)	[−0.078, 0.186]
Task difficulty	0.047 (1.031)	[−0.047, 0.140]	0.042 (0.895)	[−0.052, 0.135]	−0.018 (−0.418)	[−0.141, −0.025]	−0.023 (−0.515)	[−0.108, 0.063]	0.005 (0.128)	[−0.073, 0.084]	0.01 (0.246)	[−0.072, 0.093]
Current position	−0.062 (−1.718)	[−0.158, 0.033]	−0.028 (−0.745)	[−0.122, 0.067]	−0.083 * (−2.361)		−0.057 (−1.613)	[−0.124, 0.011]	0.018 (0.576)	[−0.045, 0.081]	0.034 (1.029)	[−0.031, 0.100]
Task-specific experience	0.018 (0.228)	[−0.126, 0.190]			0.136 (1.742)	[−0.001, 0.306]			0.331 ** (8.164)	[0.251, 0.410]
Shared team experience			0.191 * (2.842)	[0.054, 0.344]			0.192 ** (2.736)	[0.061, 0.336]			0.193 ** (4.807)	[0.114, 0.273]
Team tenure	−1.176 ** (−4.061)	[−1.703, −0.568]	−0.301 (−1.233)	[−0.771, 0.186]	−0.508 (−1.813)	[−0.998, 0.109]	−0.199 (−0.865)	[−0.650, 0.258]
Task-specific experience × team tenure	0.254 ** (5.404)	[0.155, 0.340]			0.139 ** (3.046)	[0.038, 0.218]
Shared team experience × team tenure			0.114 ** (2.842)	[0.034, 0.191]			0.090 * (2.377)	[0.014, 0.164]
Teammate mental model									0.317 ** (7.798)	[0.237, 0.397]	0.363 ** (8.592)	[0.280, 0.446]
Task mental model									0.320 ** (7.419)	[0.235, 0.405]	0.357 ** (7.878)	[0.267, 0.445]
R2	0.41		0.383		0.356		0.36		0.563		0.522
F	51.557 ***		46.071 ***		41.071 ***		41.787 ***		95.559 ***		81.115 ***

Note: N = 452; the t-values are in parentheses. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

.

First, as shown in Model 1 and Model 3 of Table 3, the interaction of task-specific experience and team tenure had a significant predictive effect on both the teammate mental model (β = 0.254, p < 0.01, 95% CI = [0.155,0.340]) and task mental model (β = 0.139, p < 0.01, 95% CI = [0.038,0.218]). This suggested that team tenure moderated the relationship between task-specific experience and shared mental models. To describe the moderating effect, we presented task-specific experience on shared mental models at high (M + 1SD) and low (M − 1SD) levels of team tenure. The simple slope tests showed that the relationship between task-specific experience and teammate mental model was stronger for firefighters with a high level of team tenure (β_simple = 0.939, p < 0.001) than for those with a low level (β_simple = 0.316, p < 0.01). Similarly, the relationship between task-specific experience and task mental model was higher for brigades with a high level of team tenure (β_simple = 0.640, p < 0.01) than for those with a low level (β_simple = 0.299, p < 0.01). These results showed that as team tenure increased, the significant and positive effect of task-specific experience on shared mental models was strengthened (see Figure 3).

Second, as shown in Model 2 and Model 4 of Table 3, the interaction of shared team experience and team tenure showed significant predictive effects on both the teammate mental model (β = 0.114, p < 0.01, 95% CI = [0.034, 0.191]) and the task mental model (β = 0.090, p < 0.05, 95% CI = [0.014, 0.164]). Thus, team tenure also moderated the relationship between shared team experience and shared mental models. We further tested the interaction effects at different levels of team tenure (i.e., M + 1SD and M − 1SD) to investigate the moderating effects. The simple slope tests showed that the relationship between shared team experience and teammate mental model was higher for firefighters with a high level of team tenure (β_simple = 0.604, p < 0.001) than for those with a low level (β_simple = 0.325, p < 0.001). Similarly, the relationship between shared team experience and the task mental model was stronger for firefighters with a high level of team tenure (β_simple = 0.518, p < 0.01) than for those with a low level (β_simple = 0.298, p < 0.001). These results showed that as team tenure increased, the significant and positive effect of shared team experience on shared mental models was strengthened (see Figure 4).

Further moderated mediation effect tests, as shown in

Table 4. Results for the conditional indirect effect of shared mental models at different team tenure levels.

Path of Mediation	Level	Effect Value	Boot SE	Boot LLCI	Boot ULCI
Task-specific experience—teammate mental model—fire brigade rescue effectiveness	Low level (−1SD)	0.100	0.022	0.061	0.149
	Mean	0.199	0.035	0.134	0.272
	High level (+1SD)	0.298	0.059	0.193	0.425
Task-specific experience—task mental model—fire brigade rescue effectiveness	Low level (−1SD)	0.095	0.025	0.049	0.148
	Mean	0.150	0.029	0.098	0.21
	High level (+1SD)	0.204	0.048	0.120	0.307
Shared team experience—teammate mental model—fire brigade rescue effectiveness	Low level (−1SD)	0.118	0.026	0.073	0.173
	Mean	0.169	0.028	0.120	0.228
	High level (+1SD)	0.220	0.043	0.146	0.314
Shared team experience—task mental model—fire brigade rescue effectiveness	Low level (−1SD)	0.106	0.028	0.058	0.166
	Mean	0.146	0.028	0.096	0.204
	High level (+1SD)	0.185	0.041	0.113	0.272

Note: Boot LLCI refers to the lower limit of the bootstrap sampling 95% interval, and Boot ULCI refers to the upper limit of the bootstrap sampling 95% interval.

, demonstrated that at different levels of team tenure, the mediation effect of shared mental models gradually increased with the increase in team tenure. Thus, team tenure moderated the indirectly positive effect of STTS experiences on fire brigade rescue effectiveness through shared mental models. In conclusion, these results suggested that team tenure plays a moderating role between STTS experiences and shared mental models, indicating that H5 and H6 were supported.

5. Discussion

This study investigated how STTS experiences affect the team performance of fire brigades. The results demonstrated that STTS experiences have a positive impact on fire brigade rescue effectiveness. Moreover, shared mental models mediate the relationship between STTS experiences and rescue effectiveness, while team tenure moderates this effect. Based on these findings, this study provides both theoretical and practical insights for improving the team performance of fire brigades.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

First, the study revealed that STTS experiences positively predict rescue effectiveness, highlighting that accumulated experience serves as a crucial knowledge source that enhances performance. In fire brigades, both the task-specific experiences and the shared team experiences were found to predict higher rescue effectiveness. Although some studies have noted that experience can sometimes negatively affect rescue effectiveness due to the misuse of experience or complacency in highly experienced teams, such negative effects were not observed in this context [46].

Second, this study confirmed the proposed “experience–cognition–effectiveness” framework, revealing that the transformation of experience into effective behavioral responses involves a systematic process. Specifically, the impact of STTS experiences on the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades depends on the integration of individual knowledge and cognition into the team-level knowledge structure. According to the IPO model, team inputs are transformed through interactions, cognition, or emotions among members, eventually resulting in team performance [16]. STTS experiences not only enhance firefighters’ job competencies through the accrual of relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities, which, in turn, leads to better individual performance [47], but they also promote firefighters gaining more shared knowledge in the context of team collaboration, which leads to greater team efficiencies [34]. It is also important to note that the IMOI model further emphasizes the cyclical feedback nature of the above process; that is, the end of the previous stage will affect the team inputs, processes, and performance status of the next stage [17]. This highlights that shared mental models provide a powerful coordination mechanism for fire brigades, effectively facilitating the continuous evolution of skill coordination and team collaboration in future operations [25].

Third, this study introduced team tenure as a moderating variable to distinguish how different durations of experience influence the transformation of experience into performance outcomes. The results show that team tenure positively moderates the relationship between STTS experiences and shared mental models, which subsequently influences fire brigade rescue effectiveness. This finding aligns with expectations, as years of service are a key criterion for firefighter grade evaluation. Longer tenure typically reflects greater operational experience and more frequent collaboration, contributing to more accurate and complete shared mental models [48]. These enhanced mental models, in turn, improve the rescue effectiveness of fire brigades.

5.2. Practical Implications

First, targeted learning and utilization of experience should be implemented. Our findings suggest that both task-specific experience and shared team experience contribute to the development of shared mental models and the improvement of rescue effectiveness within fire brigades. Therefore, it is beneficial to identify the different levels of experience among firefighters and develop tailored training and task preparation plans accordingly. Specifically, firefighters should be categorized and managed based on the two dimensions of STTS experience. In special task scenarios (e.g., chemical fires), firefighters with relevant task-specific experience should be prioritized for core roles. By leveraging their well-developed task mental models, team cognitive alignment can be accelerated through a demonstrative effect. In terms of shared team experience, regular cross-team joint drills should be conducted to strengthen team members’ consensus on collaboration processes and role complementarity (i.e., teammate mental models).

Second, the assessment of mental models should be embedded in the training system of fire brigades. This study highlights the critical mediating role of shared mental models in transforming STTS experiences into team performance. However, current training for firefighters typically focuses on skills and physical fitness, often neglecting cognitive aspects. Therefore, managers can adopt various methods such as questionnaires, concept mapping, and simulation drills to regularly evaluate the task mental model and teammate mental model of firefighters. These assessments help managers to develop personalized improvement plans and thus correct firefighters’ cognitive biases. In addition, regular experience-sharing sessions can be organized, inviting outstanding firefighters to share their operational experiences and promote cognitive exchange and learning within the team. Such activities encourage firefighters to reflect on their attitudes, beliefs, and understanding of tasks and teammates, thereby facilitating the effective transformation of experience into rescue effectiveness.

Third, adaptive management strategies based on team tenure should be established. Our research indicates that the tenure of firefighters in a team significantly impacts the development of their shared mental models. For newly recruited firefighters, establishing effective mental models is more challenging. Therefore, we recommend maintaining the stability of the team to which new members are assigned to help them construct stable mental models. Conversely, for firefighters with high tenure, they can be allocated to newly formed teams that require rapid adjustment of mental models in order to fully leverage their experience advantages. However, it is important to note that some scholars have proposed potential negative effects of high team tenure [49], such as groupthink and a reduced capability of the team to generate novel solutions to problems [50]. Moreover, some studies find a relationship close to zero between team tenure and team performance [51]. Although our results highlight the positive aspects of team tenure in enhancing the effectiveness of fire brigades, the mixed empirical evidence suggests that caution is warranted. Specifically, practitioners should be aware of potential negative or threshold effects of team tenure, wherein the benefits of tenure may diminish—or even become detrimental—once it exceeds a certain level. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the supervision for long-tenured firefighters to ensure sustained improvements in team performance.

5.3. Limitations and Future Direction

Although this study makes contributions to the study of fire brigade rescue effectiveness, it also has certain limitations. First, we used self-reported survey data to assess rescue effectiveness. Although this method is a reasonable choice given our research objectives (as discussed in the Methods section) and the use of subjective perceptions as indicators of team performance is well established in relevant studies [36,37], self-reported data are inherently subject to limitations such as social desirability bias and recall bias. While we took certain steps to minimize these biases (e.g., protecting the identity of participants and providing closed-ended, specific, and consistent questions), they cannot be entirely eliminated due to their intrinsic nature. Therefore, future research could adopt mixed-method designs that combine self-reports with objective data sources (e.g., response time, error rates, or success rates in simulated rescue scenarios) to triangulate findings and reduce bias.

Second, we studied the temporal relationship between variables cross-sectionally. As STTS experiences involve the accumulation of interactions over time, the dynamic evolution of their relationship with shared mental models has not been fully captured. While our cross-sectional data limits the inference of causality, it can still yield valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms linking key variables. Indeed, statistical mediation analyses similar to ours have been conducted using such research designs and data sets in other research [52,53]. Future research can therefore analyze how changing STTS experiences influence the formation of shared mental models and the subsequent effectiveness of rescue tasks by tracking data longitudinally.

Additionally, we examined that team tenure moderates the relationship between STTS experiences and fire department rescue effectiveness in a linear fashion. Although team tenure is a fundamental team compositional factor, evidence on the team performance implications of team tenure remains inconclusive [17,48]. Recent studies have identified a curvilinear relationship between team tenure and average team member task performance as partially mediated by team psychological traits [49]. These findings imply that team tenure may play a more complex role in converting team experience into shared mental models and team performance. Therefore, it would be worthwhile to further investigate the nonlinear effect of team tenure to gain a more comprehensive understanding of its impact on team effectiveness.