Emotional Induction Among Firefighters Using Audiovisual Stimuli: An Experimental Study

Abstract

This study investigates the effectiveness of immersive audiovisual simulations in eliciting emotional responses and replicating the psychological and cognitive demands of high-risk operational environments, particularly in firefighting scenarios. Conducted in two successive phases, the research first employed a pilot study involving 90 participants (45 firefighters and 45 students) who were exposed to a controlled audiovisual simulation. Emotional responses were assessed using the Differential Emotion Scale (DES), the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). The second phase involved an immersive room experiment with 36 firefighters, where the same audiovisual stimulus was presented in a fully immersive environment, integrating interactive decision-making tasks to enhance ecological validity. The findings indicate that both methods effectively elicited the targeted emotional responses, including stress, fear, anger, and serenity, with firefighters exhibiting greater emotional regulation and adaptive coping strategies compared to students. The immersive room environment significantly amplified emotional engagement, resulting in stronger emotional responses from the first scene onward. These results underscore the potential of immersive training tools in preparing emergency responders for high-stress situations by strengthening psychological resilience, improving emotional regulation, and optimizing decision-making under pressure. The study contributes to advancing evidence-based training methodologies in emergency response, public safety, and crisis management, emphasizing the importance of integrating immersive technologies into professional training programs.

1. Introduction

1.1. Theoretical Context: Emotions and Regulation

Emotional regulation is a fundamental aspect of psychological research, especially in professions where critical decisions must be made under intense stress. Recent research further emphasizes that firefighters develop specific emotional regulation strategies over time to mitigate stress responses and maintain decision-making efficiency in high-pressure situations [1]. In high-stakes environments such as firefighting or emergencies, effective emotional regulation is essential for maintaining performance and resilience. However, replicating the emotional responses that firefighters encounter during real-world emergencies in experimental settings poses a significant challenge. Traditional training methods often fail to capture the intensity and unpredictability of real-life emergencies. This limitation underscores the need for tools that offer high ecological validity by closely replicating the emotional and cognitive challenges faced by professionals in high-risk fields.

Research highlights that intense emotions such as fear or anger can impair judgment and hinder decision-making during critical moments [2]. Conversely, emotional regulation strategies like cognitive reappraisal enhance adaptive responses to such challenges. However, recreating the urgency, uncertainty, and risk inherent in emergency operations is a complex task for researchers [3]. This difficulty underscores the need for innovative approaches to studying emotions in controlled settings.

Advances in audiovisual technology present a promising avenue for addressing this challenge. However, one of the major challenges in training emergency responders is preparing them to manage intense and unpredictable emotions without exposing them to real-life hazards. This dilemma raises a key question: how can we realistically replicate these emotions to facilitate the learning of effective emotional regulation strategies while ensuring a controlled experimental environment? Immersive tools provide controlled environments capable of inducing emotional states that resemble those encountered in real-world scenarios [4,5]. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of such tools in eliciting authentic emotional responses among seasoned professionals, such as firefighters, remains uncertain. Repeated exposure to operational stress may alter firefighters’ emotional reactivity and regulation over time [6], raising questions about the reliability of these simulations for this population.

This study, conducted as part of the CP2DIMG research program (in French: Capacité de Prise de Décision Dans l’Incertitude sous Stress Dépassé ou Mal Géré), explores whether an audiovisual simulation of an emergency intervention can authentically replicate the emotional dynamics experienced in operational contexts. By comparing the emotional reactions of groups exposed to varying levels of operational stress, this research aims to assess the reliability of immersive stimuli in recreating the emotional experiences characteristic of real-life situations.

Although our study does not directly address this topic, it is widely acknowledged that immersive virtual reality (VR) environments have demonstrated their ability to elicit more intense emotional and physiological responses compared to traditional settings, highlighting their potential as particularly effective tools for studying emotional and cognitive processes [7].

The findings aim to inform the development of innovative training tools that bridge the gap between theoretical understanding and operational readiness. By leveraging realistic and immersive scenarios, this research seeks to enhance emotional resilience and decision-making under pressure. Ultimately, it contributes to refining training protocols for high-risk professions, advancing our understanding of emotional regulation in professional contexts, and fostering preparedness for the demands of real-world challenges.

1.2. Defining the Operational Context

The concept of the operational context represents an evolution of research on extreme contexts, characterized by dynamism, uncertainty, and risk [8]. Firefighters’ interventions exemplify these environments, where missions involve significant dangers, rapid decision-making, and coordinated actions. The three primary dimensions of the operational context are:

• Dynamism: Situations evolve rapidly and unpredictably, requiring constant reassessment of priorities.
• Uncertainty: Incomplete or unreliable information amplifies the challenges of decision-making.
• Risk: Physical dangers to responders and victims increase emotional and cognitive pressure.

In such environments, firefighters are compelled to perform rescue operations to preserve lives, property, and the environment, as outlined in their missions described in article L1424-2 of the French General Code of Local Authorities [9]. These skills lie at the heart of their operational resilience and training.

Building on this framework, the notion of rescue embodies the core of firefighters’ operational commitment. It reflects a comprehensive approach that combines risk anticipation, rapid assessment, and the mobilization of resources to safeguard lives, property, and the environment in critical situations. Far from being solely a technical endeavor, rescue operations integrate technical, ethical, and emotional dimensions, underscoring the multifaceted nature of decision-making and action under the pressures of dynamic, high-stakes environments. This intrinsic connection between rescue and the operational context underscores the necessity for a holistic framework that bridges theoretical constructs with real-world complexities [10].

Despite their expertise, firefighters are not immune to the effects of operational stress. Research indicates that frequent exposure to acute danger can alter their emotional reactivity and regulation, ultimately affecting their performance [6].

1.3. Specific Objectives of the Paper

This paper aims to:

• Evaluate the effectiveness of audiovisual stimuli in inducing realistic emotional states among firefighters by replicating the characteristics of the operational context. The emotions targeted by this research are stress (and its opposite: serenity), anger (towards the aggressor), and fear (for the victim or his own safety).
• Compare the emotional responses of different groups (firefighters, students) to these stimuli, considering their professional experience and exposure to stress.

The results of this study aim to provide actionable insights for the development of more immersive and adaptive training programs.

The paper is structured as follows. The materials and methods section outlines the experimental framework, detailing the design of the audiovisual stimulus developed by the Departmental Fire and Rescue Service of North Corsica (SIS 2B) training division (groupement formation “GFOR”), the composition of the participant groups, and the tools used to assess their emotional responses. This section also describes the two studies—the pilot study and the immersive room experiment—emphasizing their methodological distinctions and unique contributions.

The results section presents the study’s findings, comparing emotional dynamics across groups and highlighting key patterns related to professional experience and emotional regulation strategies.

The discussion section provides an in-depth interpretation of these findings, situating them within the broader context of high-stress professions. It explores their implications for professional training and acknowledges the study’s limitations.

Finally, the conclusion and perspectives section summarizes the research’s key contributions, focusing on practical applications for training programs in operational contexts. It also outlines directions for future research, including the adaptation of immersive audiovisual tools to other professions and their long-term impact on emotional resilience and decision-making.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted between March and September 2023 as part of the CP2DIMG research program. The pilot study was carried out between March and May 2023, involving both firefighters and students, while the immersive room study was conducted between June and September 2023 with a firefighter-only population. All experimental sessions were approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Corsica on 6 March 2023.

2.1. Audiovisual Scenario

The audiovisual scenario was developed by the SIS 2B GFOR, the unit responsible for designing realistic and operationally relevant training content for firefighters. This expert team specializes in creating scenarios that accurately reflect the complex, dynamic, and high-stakes conditions encountered during real interventions. Their direct involvement ensured the scenario’s authenticity and practical relevance, leveraging their deep understanding of firefighting operations. The scenario underwent multiple iterations based on expert feedback from active-duty firefighters and psychologists to ensure its operational relevance and emotional authenticity. As demonstrated by Reis and Neves [11], virtual reality simulations provide an effective platform for training decision-making skills in an immersive and interactive manner, offering a safe environment to explore mistakes and improve performance.

By entrusting the design to the SIS 2B GFOR, recognized experts in the field, the scenario benefits from operational credibility. The result is an immersive and engaging audiovisual support that mirrors the unpredictability, urgency, and critical decision-making characteristic of operational context. Mancuso et al. [12] emphasize the capacity of virtual reality to simulate dynamic and emotionally intense environments, enabling a closer approximation to real-world operational experiences. The audiovisual is divided into an introductory phase, followed by four major scenes (SC1 to SC4), each designed to elicit specific emotions, ranging from initial tension to the urgency of a situation involving a distressed child and an armed man (Figure 1b). Two separate experimental studies were conducted. The first, called the “pilot study”, targeted an audience of students and emergency responders, while the second, referred to as the “immersive room study”, involved another group of emergency responders.

Figure 2 provides a timeline depicting the temporal segmentation of the audiovisual support and the chronological structure of its different scenes.

Figure 3 illustrates the anticipated level of emotional intensity for each scene in the film. This representation offers an overview of the expected emotional impact, enabling a comparison between the intended emotional cues and the actual responses observed during the study.

2.1.1. Introductory Phase (IP)

Common to both experiments: The audiovisual support begins with a 10-s countdown, particularly important in an immersive environment. This countdown is followed by a fade-in to a subjective view from inside a moving fire truck, approaching a building. The distinctive sound of the vehicle’s siren is activated, while the firefighters’ radio broadcasts information about other ongoing interventions. These initial elements are designed to immerse the viewer in the operational environment of firefighters, creating the feeling of being in the middle of an intervention, surrounded by multiple radio calls.

The camera then follows the movement of the responders as they exit the vehicle and head toward the building entrance. The sound of the siren gradually fades, replaced by city noises and ongoing radio messages. Footsteps are amplified, heightening the impression of movement and tension.

2.1.2. Scene 1 (SC1): Climbing the Stairs

This scene aims to gradually increase the tension. The firefighters enter a dark stairwell, with the sound of their footsteps echoing in the confined space. To simulate the effect of stress, audible heartbeats are added, mimicking the sensation of feeling one’s own heartbeat in a tense situation. Midway up, distant cries from a woman pleading for help can be heard, escalating the urgency, and quickening the responders’ steps.

Differences between the pilot study and the immersive room:

• Pilot study: The audiovisual support pauses at the first cries, allowing participants to respond to the psychometric test associated with this initial scene. This pause lasts one minute, providing a moment for reflection and analysis.
• Immersive room: No interruption is planned. The cries continue to grow closer as the responders ascend to the landing, where one firefighter knocks on the door.

In this scene, it is expected that the firefighters’ experience will help them remain relatively calm, with a rational analysis of events prevailing, even though the atmosphere remains intense and immersive.

2.1.3. Scene 2 (SC2): Appearance of the Victim

When the door opens, a woman with a bruised face and bleeding neck wounds appears, asking for help (Figure 1a). She also indicates the presence of a threatening individual who could harm someone. In the background, the angry voice of a man can be heard, suggesting a scene of domestic violence. The woman, visibly weakened, sits down and, in a trembling voice, says, ‘He’s going to kill her’, indicating a threat to another person. She appears on the verge of fainting, her strength waning.

This scene aims to trigger a reaction of surprise excessively increasing their stress, as providing assistance remains a relatively standard procedure for firefighters. However, as the woman reveals more information, the sense of rescue becomes more pronounced, though a certain level of uncertainty about the specifics and dangers of the intervention remains.

Differences between the pilot study and the immersive room:

• Pilot study: The audiovisual support pauses at this point to allow participants to complete the questionnaires for the scene.
• Immersive room: The audiovisual support continues uninterrupted, allowing viewers to stay fully immersed in the scene.

2.1.4. Scene 3 (SC3): A Piercing Scream

A piercing scream, resembling that of a young girl in distress, draws attention toward a dark hallway. This unexpected element creates an intense surprise effect, while the image slows down the movement down the hallway, intensifying a sense of unease. Sounds of objects falling suggest a violent scene and a man’s voice can be heard yelling at another person behind a closed door, heightening the tension.

Differences between the pilot study and the immersive room:

• Pilot study: The audiovisual support pauses after the girl’s scream to assess the emotional impact of the scene on participants.
• Immersive room: The audiovisual support also pauses after the scream, but a question appears in white text on a black background, asking firefighters to provide instructions for helping the injured woman within 15 s (Figure 4). This exercise aims to increase stress by engaging them in the task despite the heightened tension of the rescue situation. A 15-s countdown appears on screen, with a voice announcing the last ten seconds to intensify the sense of urgency.

2.1.5. Scene 4 (SC4): The Threatening Man

The firefighters arrive at a door, which they open to find a man armed with a knife in a room, issuing direct threats (Figure 1b). On the floor, the feet of a child are visible behind the bed, leaving uncertainty about the child’s condition. The man lunges toward the firefighters with his weapon, creating an immediate danger to both them and the child.

The firefighters retreat behind the door, closing it quickly. Then, a child’s cry is heard, signaling that the child is still alive and must be swiftly removed from harm. This is meant to amplify stress and evoke emotions of anger, indignation, and fear for the victim and for their own physical safety.

Differences between the pilot study and the immersive room:

• Pilot study: The audiovisual support pauses after the child’s cry behind the door, allowing participants to complete the emotional questionnaire.
• Immersive room: The audiovisual simulation also pauses after the child’s cry, displaying a question in white on a black background, prompting firefighters to provide rescue instructions within 15 s. This exercise is designed to heighten stress by demanding rapid decision-making in a high-risk, uncertain scenario where the child’s life is at stake. A 15-s countdown is displayed, with a voice announcing the final ten seconds to further intensify the sense of urgency.

2.1.6. Behind-the-Scenes

To help participants regain a stable emotional state after the immersive experience, a complementary video titled behind-the-scenes (BTS) was created (Figure 5). This short video focuses on light-hearted and humorous moments (bloopers), and presents behind-the-scenes footage, filming errors, and humorous situations experienced by the production team and actors. The goal is to create a deliberate contrast with the emotional tension of the main audiovisual support, evoking positive emotions such as amusement and relaxation. This process helps participants transition smoothly from a state of stress or tension to a more neutral or even positive emotional state.

2.1.7. Overall Summary

The entire audiovisual support is composed of events illustrating four characteristics of an operational context:

• Constant uncertainty in a constrained environment without direct visual clues (closed door, cries, ambiguous noises).
• Dynamic evolution of the situation (revelation that the child is alive after the door is closed), with unpredictable events requiring quick reactions.
• Threat posed by the armed man, highlighting a clear risk.
• Necessity to rescue the child, requiring rapid and coordinated intervention, typical of rescue missions in an operational setting.

2.2. Measurements

Three tools were employed: The Differential Emotion Scale (DES) [13] to evaluate the emotional state of the participants, and the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire(ERQ) [1] and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) [14] to define their emotional profile.

The DES allows participants to evaluate the intensity of various emotions they experience on a Likert scale ranging from 0 (“Not at all”) to 10 (“Intensely”). Participants indicate the intensity of each emotion by marking a cross on a horizontal line. This test provides a subjective yet precise measure of emotional states, yielding comprehensive data on participants’ psychological states prior to exposure to the study stimuli. The resulting scores are analyzed quantitatively, with the calculation of means and standard deviations, to identify trends and differences in emotional responses.

In this study, the DES was employed at three key stages: to assess baseline emotional states, following each scene, and after the behind-the-scenes video. A total of nine emotions were selected: four positive (fun, serenity, joy, and surprise), four negative (anger, fear, disgust, and sadness), and one additional item, “stress”, to capture the intensity of this specific response. According to Zupan and Eskritt [5], surprise was included to mitigate the potential inflation of fear responses, with which it is often confused. This inclusion enhances the accuracy and reliability of the emotional data collected.

The ERQ [1] includes 10 questions that assess the emotional regulation strategies individuals use. This questionnaire focuses on two main strategies: cognitive reappraisal and emotional suppression. Cognitive reappraisal involves changing one’s perspective on a situation to alter the emotions felt, while suppression involves inhibiting emotional expression. Participants rate their agreement on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). For this study, the French adaptation of the ERQ was administered [15]. Analyzing the ERQ responses provides insights into participants’ preferred emotional regulation strategies, shedding light on their ability to manage stress and emotions in various situations, including those simulated in the study.

The PSS [14] consists of 14 questions designed to evaluate how individuals perceive their ability to manage the demands of their environment. Responses are rated on a Likert scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often), indicating the frequency with which participants have felt or thought about specific stress-related situations in the past month.

The combination of these three tools provides a multi-faceted assessment of emotional responses in high-pressure environments. The DES offers a detailed analysis of emotional variations throughout the simulation, capturing fluctuations in both positive and negative emotions, thus allowing for a dynamic evaluation of the emotional experience. While the PSS primarily serves as an indicator of perceived stress, facilitating group comparisons and assessing the impact of the immersive scenario on emotional load, the ERQ and PSS provide additional perspective by identifying participants’ individual predispositions in stress perception and emotion regulation. These latter measures help to better understand how pre-existing emotional regulation strategies—such as cognitive reappraisal and suppression—may influence responses to high-stress situations. By integrating these tools, the study enables a refined analysis that distinguishes between the immediate emotional impact of the simulation and the underlying individual differences that may shape emotional and stress responses in operational contexts.

2.3. The Pilot Study

2.3.1. Participants

Ninety adults (35 women) participated in the study: 45 firefighters from the Departmental Fire and Rescue Service (SDIS) of Haute-Corse and the Departmental Operational Fire and Rescue Center (CODIS) of Corse-du-Sud, aged 19 to 61 years (M = 39, SD = 11.52), and 45 students from the Universities of Montpellier and Corsica (France), aged 19 to 45 years (M = 22.2, SD = 4.42). The tests were conducted in multiple sessions between March and May 2023. The exclusion criterion for students was the absence of current or previous volunteer firefighter experience. Participants provided informed consent via forms specifically designed for this research, and all data were anonymized.

The final sample size was determined based on the availability of professional firefighters, balancing operational constraints with experimental rigor. Given the need for real-time exposure to audiovisual stimuli followed by self-assessments, the minimum number of participants was selected to ensure valid experimental conditions while accommodating the scheduling limitations inherent to emergency response personnel [16].

2.3.2. Procedure

The experimental sessions were conducted in groups of 15 to 20 participants. Students were gathered in classrooms at the University of Montpellier and the University of Corsica in Corte, while firefighters participated in a training room at their fire station or at the Departmental Operational Center for Fire and Rescue (CODIS) in Ajaccio.

Before the video viewing, participants completed the DES to assess their baseline emotional state, indicating the degree to which they experienced various emotions (anger, surprise, fear, disgust, sadness, amusement, serenity, joy, and stress). This initial “baseline DES” served as a reference point to determine whether the video effectively elicited the target emotions of stress, fear, anger, and serenity.

After each of the four key scenes of the video, the experimenter paused the screening to allow participants time to complete the DES again. Once the video was fully viewed, participants were shown the BTS.

Following this, they completed the DES for a final time to assess whether the BTS helped restore their emotional state to its baseline level.

A few days after the experiment, participants were asked to complete the ERQ and the PSS-14, providing information about their emotional regulation strategies and stress levels.

2.4. The Immersive Room Study

2.4.1. Participants

Thirty-six firefighters (including 6 women) aged 17 to 59 years (M = 34.1 years, SD = 12.5) participated in this study. The immersive study sessions were conducted on 20 June and 29 June 2023, in Corte.

As in the pilot study, participants completed two questionnaires aimed at assessing their individual characteristics in emotional regulation and perceived stress.

They achieved a mean score of 32 in the “cognitive reappraisal” strategy (SD = 4.81) and a mean score of 18.3 in the “emotional suppression” strategy (SD = 5.02). Their mean perceived stress score was 47.4 (SD = 4.82).

The National Center for Public Service (CNFPT), specifically its regional delegation in Corsica, supported us in organizing the testing sessions.

2.4.2. Procedure

The sessions were conducted individually in an immersive room at the University of Corsica. This room provides an optimal viewing experience with a large screen and an immersive sound system. Before watching the film, participants completed the DES for the first time to assess their initial emotional state.

While in Study 1 pauses were introduced during the film after each scene of interest to allow participants time to complete the DES, in this study, the film was presented almost continuously. The only interruptions occurred at two moments when the firefighter participant (SP) was required to indicate to a colleague what they would have done at that point in the film (once after Scene 3 and once after Scene 4). This questioning was designed to make the situation more ecological for the participant.

After watching the film, participants exited the immersive room and were taken to another room where they completed the DES again, indicating the emotions they experienced for each of the four scenes in the film. Subsequently, they viewed the BTS to distance themselves from the emotional experience induced by the film and return to a stable emotional state). Then, participants completed the DES one final time.

In this study, the film is viewed individually in the immersive room at the University of Corsica. This dedicated room is designed to offer an enhanced viewing experience, featuring a large screen and an immersive audio system (Figure 6).

During this protocol, two questions appear after Scene 3 and Scene 4, involving a technical response from the emergency responders aimed at inducing stress related to the need for rescue. Participants must provide responses as if representing their teammate in the intervention, within a limited time. These questions focus on technical aspects of first aid related to the situation depicted in the film, to replicate the concept of rescue required in the operational context.

3. Results

3.1. Results of the Pilot Study

The results for each participant were averaged for each of the six DES assessments and each of the nine emotions. Due to indications of non-normality in the data distribution, non-parametric statistical tests were employed. Within-group comparisons were conducted using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, while between-group comparisons were analyzed with the Mann-Whitney U test.

3.1.1. Statistical Choice on Outlier Data

For accurate data representation in psychological research, it is crucial to identify and exclude outlier data points that could distort the overall results. Research in the field [17], underscores the importance of carefully removing outliers to enhance the validity of data analysis. In line with the recommendations of Osborne and Overbay [18], this study employed a specific filtering method to exclude participants who demonstrated potential disengagement or underreporting of their emotional responses.

This method involved excluding participants whose responses contained an excessive number of zeros for key emotions such as stress, anger, and fear (defined as more than eight zeros across assessments), as well as a zero for amusement at the BTS segment. As a result of this filtering process, 16 participants from the firefighter group and 5 participants from the student group were excluded. The final sample sizes for the study were as follows: Students: N = 40 (32 women and 8 men) M = 22.6 years, SD = 4.60; Firefighters: N = 34 (32 men and 2 women) M = 37.8 years, SD = 10.9.

3.1.2. Participants Emotional Profile

As observed in Figure 7, the two participant groups do not differ in their emotional regulation strategies for both “cognitive reappraisal” and “emotional suppression”. However, the groups show a significant difference in their PSS scores: students exhibit a higher average perceived stress level (43.9) compared to the firefighter group (35.6) (U = 244, p < 0.001).

3.1.3. Emotional Responses Induced by the Video

Figure 8a,b present the DES results and highlight the differences in emotions reported by participants across the various scenes of the film based on their group affiliation respectively for firefighters and students.

Following the results depicted in Figure 8a, among firefighters, serenity is the most frequently reported emotion as early as the baseline DES assessment (W_{Serenity/Amusement} = 501, p < 0.001). Significant differences between serenity and stress are observed in Scene 1 (W_{Serenity/Stress} = 414, p < 0.001) and Scene 2 (W_{Serenity/Stress} = 441, p < 0.004). In Scene 3, serenity is accompanied by stress, anger, and surprise, which stand out significantly from other emotions (e.g., W_{Serenity/Fear} = 119, p < 0.007; W_{Anger/Sadness} = 249, p < 0.02). By Scene 4, anger and stress become the dominant emotions (W_{Anger/Serenity} = 152, p < 0.02; W_{Stress/Serenity} = 419, p < 0.04), with anger also reported more frequently than fear (W_Anger/Fear = 66, < 0.001). During the BTS segment, serenity once again becomes the dominant emotion, surpassing all others (e.g., W_{serenity/amusement} = 79, p < 0.03, all other p < 0.05).

Among students, the dominant baseline emotions are joy and stress (W_{Stress/Serenity} = 646, p < 0.001). Stress then becomes the dominant emotion in Scene 1 (W_Stress/Fear = 534, p = 0.001) and remains so in Scene 2, where it significantly exceeds fear and surprise (W_Stress/Fear = 132, p < 0.001; W_{Stress/Surprise} = 491, p < 0.04). In Scene 3, stress is more pronounced than anger and surprise (W_Stress/Anger = 170, p < 0.01; W_{Stress/Surprise} = 490, p < 0.04), although its distinction from fear diminishes due to an increase in reported fear. By Scene 4, stress and fear dominate, significantly surpassing all other emotions (e.g., W_{Stress/Disgust} = 150, p < 0.002). Finally, during the Making-Of segment, amusement and serenity become the dominant emotions (W_{Amusement/Joy} = 500, p < 0.003).

A clear distinction emerges between the dominant emotions experienced by firefighters and students during each scene. Firefighters begin the experiment by reporting serenity, which remains dominant until Scene 3. Stress and anger then appear prominently in Scenes 3 and 4. In contrast, students report stress from the beginning, with the baseline joy disappearing quickly in favor of stress, which persists until the BTS segment. In both groups, the BTS helps participants return to a positive emotional state, with firefighters regaining serenity and students predominantly reporting amusement.

The results from Study 1 demonstrate that the film successfully induces emotions, specifically those anticipated by the film’s designers: stress, fear, anger, and serenity.

These results illustrate firefighters’ expertise, shown by their lower initial stress levels and greater serenity compared to students.

3.1.4. Firefighters vs. Students Results on the Four Most Targeted Emotions: Stress, Fear, Anger and Serenity

Figure 9 presents the DES results for each scene, comparing the emotional responses of students and firefighters. It illustrates variations in emotional intensity across different scenes, providing a detailed comparison of how each group experiences and processes emotions throughout the simulation.

Regarding stress (Figure 9a), a significant difference between the firefighter and student groups is observed at the baseline DES assessment, as well as in Scenes 1 and 2, with students reporting higher levels of stress than firefighters (U_Base = 224, p < 0.001, U_SC1 = 316, p < 0.001 et U = 482, p < 0.05, respectively). In Scenes 3 and 4, the differences between the two groups are no longer significant due to an increase in stress levels among firefighters. Stress levels decrease similarly in both groups during the Making-Of segment.

Regarding fear (Figure 9b), the difference between the firefighter and student groups is significant from the baseline DES through Scene 3, with students reporting higher levels of fear than firefighters (U_Base = 469, p < 0.05, U_SC1 = 299, p < 0.001, U_SC2 = 383, p < 0.001 et U_SC3 = 356, p < 0.001, respectively). In Scene 4, this difference is no longer significant, as firefighters report increased levels of fear.

Regarding anger (Figure 9c), the two groups do not differ significantly except in Scene 4, where firefighters report higher levels of anger compared to students (U_SC4 = 463, p < 0.05).

Serenity (Figure 9d) is where the two groups differ the most: across all scenes, firefighters consistently report higher levels of serenity than students (U_Base = 273, p < 0.001, U_SC1 = 263, p < 0.001, U_SC2 = 174, p < 0.001, U_SC3 = 264, p < 0.001, U_SC4 = 291, p < 0.001 et U_BTS = 478, p < 0.05, respectively).

3.1.5. Evolution of Firefighters’ Targeted Emotions During the Film

The progression of stress, fear, anger, and serenity among firefighters throughout the film is illustrated in the following figure (Figure 10).

Building on the observations in Figure 10, a crescendo in stress, fear, and anger among firefighters is evident, with all three emotions peaking in Scene 4. The profiles for these emotions are similar, as significant differences are observed between SC1 and SC2 (W_SC1/SC2 = 62, p < 0.001 for stress; W_SC1/SC2 = 71.5, p < 0.05 for fear; W_SC1/SC2 = 58.5, p < 0.003 for anger), between SC2 and SC3 (W_SC2/SC3 = 104.5, p < 0.002 for stress; W_SC2/SC3 = 77.5, p < 0.004 for fear; W_SC2/SC3 = 64, p < 0.002 for anger), and between SC3 and SC4 (W_SC3/SC4 = 116.5, p < 0.003 for stress; W_SC3/SC4 = 47, p < 0.001 for fear; W_SC3/SC4 = 43.5, p < 0.001 for anger). The decrease in these three negative emotions during the Making-Of segment is also significant (W_SC4/BTS = 561, p < 0.001 for stress; W_SC4/BTS = 496, p < 0.001 for fear; W_SC4/BTS = 561, p < 0.001 for anger).

Serenity exhibits an inverse trend, declining throughout the film. However, this decline is less consistent, with significant differences observed in the decrease between the baseline and SC1 (W_Base/SC1 = 395, p < 0.01, W_SC2/SC3 = 298, p < 0.01, W_SC4/BTS = 107, p < 0.001).

The “restorative effect” of the BTS is clear in the graphs for stress, fear, and anger, as these emotions significantly decrease after the BTS segment. These negative emotions return to their baseline levels after the BTS, as the differences between their baseline DES values and their BTS values are not significant. This is also true for serenity, which almost fully returns to its initial level.

This first study demonstrates that the inductive video used is particularly well-suited to a firefighter audience, though some limitations are evident. Interrupting the video after each scene to measure participants’ emotions may not be ecologically valid. Additionally, showing the film collectively in a classroom setting may have hindered participants from fully “immersing” themselves in the film. Consequently, we conceived the idea of testing the same video in an immersive room to examine whether immersion enhances participants’ emotional experiences. The same video was then tested in an immersive room to determine whether immersion enhances participants’ emotional experiences, which is the objective of the second test.

3.2. Emotional Responses Across Film Scenes and Behind-the-Scenes in the Immersive Room Study

Figure 11 illustrates the evolution of emotional responses across film scenes and BTS, highlighting key differences in the dominant emotions experienced by participants during each phase of the experiment.

As shown in Figure 11, the dominant emotions in the baseline DES are joy and serenity, which stand out from all other emotions (W_{Serenity/Amusement} = 384, p < 0.03). Stress and serenity dominate in Scene 1 (W_{Serenity/Surprise} = 67, p < 0.006). From Scene 2 to Scene 4, stress becomes the dominant emotion (respectively W_{Stress/Surprise} = 463, p < 0.005; W_{Stress/Surprise} = 156, p < 0.02; and W_Stress/Fear = 459, p < 0.001). Finally, during the BTS, amusement, and serenity are the dominant emotions (W_Serenity/Joy = 346, p < 0.006 and W_{Amusement/Joy} = 49, p < 0.002).

Thus, firefighters primarily reported joy and serenity before watching the film. Subsequently, stress emerged as the dominant emotion from the first scene of the film (though some serenity persisted in Scene 1) through to Scene 4. This differs from the dominant emotions reported by firefighters in the pilot study, where stress was only reported during Scenes 3 and 4. It is possible that the immersive room amplified the stress experienced by the firefighters; however, a methodological difference may also have contributed to this result. In the first study, participants evaluated different emotions after each scene, whereas in Study 2, participants completed the DES only once, after viewing the entire film. These explanatory elements will be addressed in the discussion.

Evolution of Targeted Emotions Throughout the Film

Figure 12 illustrates the evolution of four key emotions throughout the scenes. This representation tracks the progression of stress, fear, anger, and serenity at different moments of the simulation, offering insights into how these emotions fluctuate and interact during the experience.

As illustrated in Figure 12, stress emerges as early as the stair-climbing scene (Scene 1) and gradually increases throughout the film. This increase is significant between the baseline and Scene 1 (W_Base/SC1 = 34.5, p < 0.001), as well as between Scene 2 and Scene 3 (W_SC2/SC3 = 41, p < 0.001), and remains elevated during Scenes 3 and 4.

Regarding fear, it rises between the baseline and Scene 1 (W_Base/SC1 = 38, p < 0.001), and continues to increase from Scene 2 through the rest of the film (W_SC2/SC3 = 12, p < 0.001; W _SC3/SC4 = 121, p < 0.004).

The emotion of anger increases steadily throughout the film (W_Base/SC1 = 86.50, p < 0.05; W_SC1/SC2 = 7.50, p < 0.02; W _SC2/SC3 = 7, p < 0.001) and remains elevated in Scene 4.

Serenity decreases progressively from the baseline DES to Scene 3 (W_Base/SC1 = 465.5, p < 0.004; W_SC1/SC2 = 283.5, p < 0.03; W_SC2/SC3 = 273, p < 0.003) and remains low in Scene 4, following a pattern that mirrors the stress profile.

The beneficial effect of the BTS, previously observed in the pilot study, is also evident here: the BTS helps participants return to an emotional state close to their baseline. All negative emotions decrease (stress: W_SC4/BTS = 627, p < 0.001; fear: W_SC4/BTS = 528, p < 0.001; anger: W_SC4/BTS = 300, p < 0.001), and serenity increases (W_SC4/BTS = 8, p < 0.001).

Thus, in the immersive room, the effectiveness of the film designed to induce specific emotions is confirmed, with a progressive rise in stress and negative emotions, particularly during Scenes 3 and 4 (fear, anger). The expected effects were observed despite the methodological differences between the two studies.

4. Discussion

The primary objective of this research was to assess the extent to which a film simulating a rescue intervention could induce emotions like those experienced by firefighters during real-life operations. By leveraging the expertise of the SIS2B training division, the film was specifically designed to replicate operational challenges, making it an innovative tool for exploring emotional responses in high-stress professions.

The findings from both studies highlight the film’s effectiveness in eliciting emotions, particularly stress, fear, anger, and serenity, as anticipated by the experts. Our findings align with prior research demonstrating that immersive simulations can induce emotional states comparable to real-world experiences [4,12]. However, while most studies focus on virtual reality (VR) [7], our approach provides a novel alternative using high-fidelity audiovisual simulations that do not require VR equipment. This distinction is crucial, as it makes emotional training more accessible to a broader range of emergency professionals without the technological and financial constraints of VR-based solutions. Our results demonstrate that using an immersive audiovisual tool designed to replicate operational scenarios can effectively induce emotions similar to those experienced on the field. This approach addresses the training dilemma by providing a realistic emotional experience without the risks associated with real emergency situations. Furthermore, the comparison between the immersive room and the standard video viewing highlights the importance of environmental factors in emotional training. These findings underscore the potential of such tools to improve psychological preparedness and decision-making under pressure. These results underscore the importance of tailoring emotion-induction tools to the specific characteristics of target populations, as existing methodologies often rely on student samples and generic stimuli that lack ecological validity.

4.1. Emotional Dynamics and Group-Specific Differences

The first study revealed notable differences in emotional responses between firefighters and students. Firefighters reported high levels of serenity during the initial scenes, with stress and anger emerging only during Scenes 3 and 4. Conversely, students reported stress as early as Scene 1. These differences likely stem from professional experience, as firefighters are accustomed to managing high-pressure situations and may possess more effective emotional regulation strategies.

However, social norms within firefighting might also contribute to these discrepancies [19]. The expectation for firefighters to display emotional stability and resilience could result in the underreporting of stress or fear, reflecting a potential social desirability bias. Future research integrating physiological measures (e.g., cortisol levels, and heart rate variability) could provide a more nuanced understanding of these dynamics.

The differences observed between firefighters and students highlight the role of professional experience in shaping emotional responses under stress. Firefighters, through repeated exposure to high-pressure scenarios, may develop enhanced cognitive reappraisal strategies [1], allowing them to maintain serenity during initial stressful conditions. However, their increased stress and anger during the latter scenes suggest that even experienced responders are not immune to the cumulative emotional demands of highly dynamic and unpredictable contexts. These findings underscore the importance of studying how professional experience interacts with situational complexity to influence emotions.

The results focus on significant differences in perceived stress between firefighters and students. Firefighters reported lower initial stress levels, attributed to their professional experience and more effective emotional regulation strategies. In contrast, students exhibited dominant stress levels from the very first scenes. These findings confirm that professional experience moderates the perception of stress in dynamic contexts, although cumulative stress can also affect even highly experienced professionals.

4.2. Influence of the Immersive Environment

The second study, conducted in an immersive room, showed increased emotional responses, particularly stress, as early as Scene 1. The enhanced audio-visual fidelity of the immersive environment likely heightened participants’ emotional engagement, aligning their responses more closely with real-world experiences.

Recent studies indicate that immersive training tools not only heighten emotional responses but also influence cognitive load management during high-stress decision-making [20]. However, the methodological differences between the pilot and immersive studies highlight a potential need for standardizing evaluation protocols. Future research should consider integrating real-time physiological monitoring, such as heart rate variability or skin conductance [21] to complement self-reported measures and capture moment-to-moment fluctuations in emotional arousal.

4.3. Ethical Considerations: The Role of the Behind-the-Scenes Segment

An ethical strength of this study lies in the inclusion of the BTS segment, which effectively restored participants’ emotional states to baseline levels. After inducing stress and negative emotions, it was essential to ensure participants’ well-being, and the BTS succeeded in mitigating adverse effects across both studies. This highlights the importance of incorporating debriefing tools in research involving emotional induction.

The inclusion of the behind-the-scenes segment demonstrates an approach to mitigating the negative emotional effects of stress induction. This practice aligns with ethical guidelines in psychological research, emphasizing participant well-being. Future studies could explore whether varying the content or timing of such debriefing tools influences the recovery of emotional states and contributes to longer-term benefits in emotional regulation.

4.4. Practical Implications

The results validate the potential of immersive audiovisual tools for firefighter training and broader professional applications. Research has shown that immersive environments, particularly virtual reality, effectively elicit emotional responses comparable to those experienced in real-world settings [12,22]. Unlike traditional approaches relying on generic stimuli, these tools authentically replicate the unpredictability of operational contexts, enhancing ecological validity. At the time of submission, the immersive audiovisual tool developed in this study remains one of the most operationally relevant and validated training simulations for firefighters. However, ongoing research aims to further enhance its effectiveness by integrating interactive decision-making elements and biometric monitoring (e.g., heart rate variability, eye-tracking, galvanic skin response). Additionally, recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI)-powered adaptive simulations are being explored to personalize emotional induction scenarios based on individual responses. AI-driven training tools, which dynamically adjust difficulty levels based on users’ physiological and behavioral responses, have shown promise in enhancing training retention and psychological adaptability [23]. These developments could further refine the tool’s ability to replicate real-world operational stressors with even greater fidelity.

Beyond firefighting, immersive scenarios could be integrated into training programs for other high-stress professions. Unlike traditional emotion induction studies that often rely on static images or generic stimuli [5,19], this research introduces an operationally relevant audiovisual stimulus specifically designed for firefighters. By developing a scenario grounded in real-life emergency contexts, we bridge the gap between controlled experimental conditions and the ecological validity required for effective professional training. This study also highlights the potential of immersive but non-VR-based solutions, which can be integrated into standard training programs with minimal technological adaptation. In law enforcement and healthcare, for instance, such tools could simulate crises requiring rapid decision-making and emotional regulation. Designing scenarios that incorporate positive emotional experiences, such as amusement or satisfaction during task resolution, could further enhance resilience and operational readiness.

The adaptability of immersive audiovisual tools makes them valuable assets across various fields. Law enforcement training could include simulations for crowd control or hostage situations, while healthcare professionals could benefit from scenarios addressing mass casualty events. This research also opens new perspectives for training high-stress professionals. Future studies could integrate physiological sensors to refine emotional response analysis and enable personalized training adjustments. Larger-scale research, particularly comparing different levels of professional experience, would provide deeper insights into the development of emotional regulation over time.

Additionally, investigating the long-term impact of repeated exposure to immersive scenarios on emotional resilience and operational performance would further strengthen their applicability in high-stakes professions

4.5. Applications for Training

The audiovisual tool developed in this study offers significant potential for advancing training methods in professions exposed to intense stress. By providing participants with controlled exposure to stress-inducing scenarios, the tool enables them to practice emotional regulation and progressively strengthen their resilience. Its ability to replicate realistic operational challenges also fosters cognitive and emotional adaptability, particularly when decision-making under pressure is required. Additionally, the immersive scenarios can be tailored to support team-based training, enhancing communication, coordination, and leadership within groups.

One particularly valuable finding of this study is the tool’s ability to elicit relevant emotional responses in firefighters that closely mirror those experienced during real operational contexts. This capacity paves the way for developing additional films based on the same approach, specifically designed to study emergency decision-making processes. Such tools could provide a deeper understanding of the interplay between emotions, cognition, and action in dynamic and unpredictable environments. Furthermore, they would offer opportunities to assess the effectiveness of emotional regulation strategies under realistic conditions.

The successful induction of targeted emotions in firefighters through the audiovisual tool opens the possibility of tailoring similar tools for studying decision-making processes. By designing scenarios that progressively increase complexity, researchers could investigate how emotional states influence cognitive flexibility and strategic thinking under pressure. Such insights could directly inform the development of advanced training protocols that not only improve technical skills but also foster adaptive emotional responses in unpredictable environments.

In our research objectives, we have several avenues to explore. Investigating the long-term effects of repeated exposure to these immersive scenarios may yield insights into their impact on emotional resilience and operational performance. Incorporating complementary physiological and qualitative measures, such as heart rate variability or in-depth interviews, could further enrich the understanding of participants’ experiences and validate self-reported data. Moreover, the versatility of this tool suggests opportunities for adaptation to other high-stress professions, including law enforcement, healthcare, and disaster response. Finally, exploring individual differences—such as age, gender, and professional experience—will be essential to designing scenarios that cater to diverse populations. These developments could enhance the tool’s relevance and applicability across various professional settings.

4.6. Limitations and Future Research

While this study demonstrates the effectiveness of immersive audiovisual simulations in eliciting emotional responses comparable to real-life operational contexts, certain limitations must be acknowledged.

4.6.1. Methodological Limitations

One constraint is the reliance on self-reported emotional assessments (DES, ERQ, PSS), which, while valuable, are subject to response biases such as social desirability [19]. Future research should complement these measures with physiological indicators, such as heart rate variability or skin conductance, to capture real-time emotional responses more objectively [21]. Studies incorporating real-time biometric tracking, such as electrodermal activity and pupil dilation analysis, have demonstrated improved accuracy in assessing stress levels compared to self-reported data [24,25]. This would help validate self-reported data and provide a more comprehensive understanding of emotional regulation mechanisms. Additionally, the immersive room study included only firefighters, preventing a direct comparison with non-professionals under identical conditions.

4.6.2. Limitations Related to the Study Design

Another limitation lies in the experimental setting. While the immersive room provided a heightened sense of realism compared to traditional classroom settings, it still differs from actual field operations, where additional stressors (e.g., physical exertion, and unpredictability) influence emotional regulation. Research shows that environmental stressors, such as heat and fatigue, can significantly impact neural function and decision-making in firefighters, highlighting the limitations of laboratory-based studies [6]. Future studies could explore real-world training environments where participants interact dynamically with their surroundings rather than passively viewing a simulation. Testing such tools in real-life operational settings is crucial to ensure they effectively replicate the psychological and cognitive demands of emergency response scenarios [8].

4.6.3. Future Research Directions

Several avenues can extend the current findings. Investigating the long-term effects of repeated exposure to immersive scenarios could offer insights into emotional resilience-building over time. Longitudinal studies indicate that repeated exposure to simulated stress-inducing environments can enhance adaptive coping mechanisms, although excessive exposure may also amplify desensitization effects [26,27]. Additionally, adapting immersive training tools to other high-stress professions—such as law enforcement, emergency medicine, and military operations—could validate their applicability beyond firefighting. Previous research has already demonstrated the relevance of immersive training methodologies for both firefighters and police officers [10].

A critical avenue for future research involves examining individual differences in emotional regulation strategies among firefighters. Factors such as gender, age, and professional experience may influence how firefighters regulate emotions under stress, necessitating a more tailored approach to training design [28].

Furthermore, future research should incorporate physiological indicators such as heart rate variability to validate self-reported emotional responses. Measuring R-R intervals, which represent the time between consecutive heartbeats as recorded on an electrocardiogram, provides real-time insights into autonomic nervous system activity. This allows for a more precise assessment of stress levels and emotional regulation by analyzing heart rate variability. Studies in related fields [21] suggest that combining physiological and self-reported measures can significantly enhance the reliability of emotion induction studies. For instance, future studies should also consider incorporating salivary biomarkers of stress, such as cortisol and α-amylase, to objectively assess physiological responses to emotional stimuli [29,30]. Measuring these markers at baseline and post-exposure could help differentiate individuals experiencing chronic stress from control groups, providing deeper insights into the long-term effects of stress exposure in high-risk professions. These findings align with our results, suggesting that professional experience alone does not fully account for firefighters’ emotional regulation capacities. To enhance training programs, future studies should incorporate personality assessments to identify individuals at higher risk of anxiety and depression, enabling the development of more personalized intervention strategies.

5. Conclusions and Perspectives

This study highlights the effectiveness of immersive audiovisual simulations in replicating the emotional dynamics of high-stress operational contexts, particularly within firefighting scenarios. By comparing the emotional responses of firefighters and students, our findings confirm that professional experience plays a crucial role in emotional regulation. Firefighters demonstrated greater emotional stability, with stress and anger emerging only in the final stages of the simulation, whereas students reported stress from the first scene. These results emphasize the importance of developing training tools tailored to the specific needs and experiences of professionals operating in high-risk environments.

The immersive audiovisual tool developed in this research offers a realistic yet accessible alternative to traditional training methods. Unlike generic stimuli or virtual reality systems, this approach provides an effective means of exposing trainees to emotionally intense situations without the logistical and financial constraints associated with VR-based solutions. Furthermore, the findings underline the role of immersive environments in amplifying emotional responses, as evidenced by the heightened stress levels observed in the immersive room study compared to the standard video setting.

Beyond firefighting, the applications of immersive simulations extend to various high-stress professions such as law enforcement, emergency medicine, and military operations. The ability to simulate crises requiring rapid decision-making and emotional regulation makes these tools valuable for improving psychological preparedness across multiple sectors.

This study can be improved by exploring the following areas to deepen the analysis and enhance the results:

• Future studies should investigate how repeated exposure to immersive scenarios influences long-term emotional resilience and decision-making under pressure. Understanding the cumulative impact of this training approach will be key to optimizing its benefits.
• While this study primarily relied on self-reported measures, integrating physiological indicators (e.g., heart rate variability, skin conductance, eye-tracking) would enable a more objective assessment of emotional responses and provide a deeper understanding of emotional regulation mechanisms.
• Expanding the use of immersive audiovisual tools beyond firefighting could help assess their applicability in law enforcement, healthcare, military operations, and disaster response. Further research should explore how these tools can be adapted to suit the specific challenges and stressors faced by different professional groups.
• Future immersive simulations could incorporate interactive elements that require participants to actively make decisions and manage crises in real time. The integration of adaptive learning algorithms could personalize training experiences based on individual responses and emotional profiles.
• While the immersive room study provided a more realistic experience, future research should explore on-site training applications where simulations are conducted in environments that closely mimic actual emergency situations, such as training centers or field exercises.

By addressing these perspectives, future research can further refine and optimize immersive training methodologies, ensuring their effectiveness across diverse professional contexts. This study contributes to the growing field of emotionally adaptive training technologies, offering a scientifically validated tool to enhance emotional regulation, decision-making, and psychological preparedness in high-stress professions. By continuing to refine and expand these methodologies, we can bridge the gap between controlled experimental conditions and real-world operational readiness, ultimately fostering better-prepared and more resilient professionals.