Provenance Discrimination of Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) Imitated Longquan Celadon from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln

Abstract

Longquan celadon represents the pinnacle of Chinese celadon, and there are many kilns in southern China that imitate Longquan celadon. During the Ming Dynasty, Jianyang Bowl Kiln was the representative kiln in Fujian Province for imitating Longquan celadon, while Jingdezhen Kiln was the representative kiln in Jiangxi Province for imitating Longquan celadon. The quality of both is close to that of Longquan celadon, making it difficult to distinguish by ordinary visual observation. This study focuses on Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln imitating Longquan celadon, comprehensively employing methods such as EDXRF, LA-ICP-MS, and chromaticity analysis to systematically investigate the similarities and differences in the composition of their body and glaze. The results indicate that distinct differences exist in the composition of trace and rare earth elements between the imitations of Longquan celadon produced by Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln, and authentic celadons from Longquan Kiln, which can serve as important criteria for distinguishing kilns. This provides systematic scientific data support for identifying the technological origins and production locations of Ming Dynasty imitations of Longquan celadon.

1. Introduction

Celadon is the earliest type of porcelain to appear in China and even the world. Since the birth of celadon from Yue Kiln in the Eastern Han Dynasty, it has undergone nearly a thousand years of development and holds an important position in the history of ceramics. Longquan Kiln was a typical kiln in the production of ancient celadon, flourishing during the Song and Yuan Dynasties and gradually declining by the late Ming Dynasty. Its kiln site was of great scale, and the celadon it produced was not only popular domestically but also exported overseas, becoming a major product in export porcelain [1]. Influenced by the outstanding quality of Longquan celadon and trade demands, many kilns in Jiangxi, Fujian, and other regions began to imitate Longquan products and sell them overseas together, becoming an important witness to China’s cultural exchanges with the outside world. During the Ming Dynasty, Jianyang Bowl Kiln in northern Fujian was the most representative site producing Fujian-made imitations of Longquan celadon. Located in Xikou Bowl Kiln Village, Tongyou Town, Jianyang City, Fujian Province, the kiln site was an important folk kiln in northern Fujian. Influenced by Longquan celadon, it became famous for manufacturing celadon porcelain. The body of its products is mostly grayish-white or light gray, with bluish-green and greenish-yellow as the predominant glaze colors. Carving and incising are the common decorative techniques. Integrating the glaze characteristics of Longquan ware with the properties of local clay, the kiln’s products bear a close resemblance to Longquan celadon in shape, glaze color and decorative style [2]. In the Jiangxi region, Jingdezhen Kiln was the representative. It is located in Jingdezhen City, Jiangxi Province, commenced porcelain production during the Five Dynasties period and progressively developed through the Song and Yuan Dynasties. The Ming government established the Imperial Kiln Factory in Jingdezhen, pooling national resources to produce porcelain, which also promoted the development of civilian kilns at that time. For commercial reasons, the civilian kilns in Jingdezhen imitated Longquan celadon during this period, and their products could rival the fine Longquan celadon of the Song Dynasty.

In recent years, with the advancement of “Maritime Silk Road” studies, the provenance identification of imitation Longquan celadon has become an academic focus. Research methods have gradually shifted from archaeological surveys of kiln sites to scientific and technical analyses. Macroscopically, through kiln site investigations and shipwreck archaeology, scholars have confirmed the existence of numerous imitation Longquan Kiln sites in Fujian, Guangdong, and Jiangxi, revealing a phased export pattern: during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, Fujian imitation Longquan celadon dominated markets in East and Southeast Asia via ports like Quanzhou, while in the Ming Dynasty, Jingdezhen imitations became the main export force, forming a complementary spatiotemporal trade system. However, significant regional imbalances exist in current micro-level research. Studies on Ming Dynasty imitation celadon from Guangdong and Jiangxi are relatively comprehensive. For instance, research by Juan Wu [3], Yanfang Wu [4], Ziyang He [5], et al., using techniques like Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF), has confirmed the high similarity in body/glaze composition and firing technology between Jingdezhen imitation celadon and Longquan celadon. In contrast, research on Fujian focuses more on the Song and Yuan periods, with studies on the Ming era being relatively weak. There is a particular scarcity of systematic comparative studies and provenance identification research between Fujian and Jiangxi imitation Longquan celadon. Our understanding of kiln sites like Jianyang Bowl Kiln in Fujian still relies heavily on early, brief archaeological surveys, such as those conducted by Zhonggan Lin [2] et al., hindering a comprehensive understanding of Ming Dynasty imitation Longquan celadon. Furthermore, the absence of studies utilizing advanced techniques like laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) for comparing trace elements in celadon from Jingdezhen and Jianyang Bowl Kiln constrains further progress in this field.

To address these limitations and advance refined provenance discrimination, this study selects imitation Longquan celadon from the Ming Dynasty Jianyang Bowl Kiln in Fujian and Jingdezhen Kiln in Jiangxi as core samples, using contemporaneous celadon from Longquan Dayao Fengdongyan Kiln as a reference. The research comprehensively employs technical methods including EDXRF, colorimetric analysis, and LA-ICP-MS to systematically compare the major/trace element composition of the body and glaze and the color characteristics among the three. The LA-ICP-MS technique, with its advantages of high sensitivity, low detection limits, and minimally invasive analysis, can accurately obtain the “fingerprint” of rare earth elements (REEs) and trace elements in the body and glaze, thereby establishing a more precise and reliable provenance discrimination standard. The application of this methodology will not only help to clarify the technical characteristics and technological origins of imitation Longquan celadon from different production areas but also provide key data support for constructing a trace-element-based provenance discrimination system within a globalized trade perspective. Consequently, it will deepen academic understanding of the production and distribution system of Ming Dynasty imitation Longquan celadon from both technological exchange and trade network viewpoints.

2. Samples and Analytical Methods

2.1. Samples

This experiment involved twenty samples (Figure 1). Twelve were Ming Dynasty Fujian Jianyang Bowl Kiln imitations of Longquan celadon, numbered WY01-WY12, provided by the Fujian Provincial Institute of Archaeology and collected from Xiukou Village, Yuan Tou Zai, Tongyou Town, Jianyang City. The remaining eight were Ming Dynasty Jingdezhen folk kiln imitations of Longquan celadon, numbered JDZY01-JDZY08, provided by the Ancient Ceramics Research Institute of Jingdezhen Ceramic University and collected from Daijialong, Zhushan District, Jingdezhen City. The brief description of the celadon produced is presented in Table 1. The control group consisted of Da Yao Fengdongyan Longquan celadon samples tested by Wang Min, with published data ensuring accuracy [6]. The geographical locations of the three kiln sites are shown in Figure 2. To ensure experimental precision, all samples underwent ultrasonic cleaning before being placed in a constant-temperature drying oven for drying and storage.

Figure 1. Samples of celadon from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln.

Table 1. Description of outside appearance of the samples.

Kiln and Location	Sample No.	Outside Appearance
Jianyang Bowl Kiln, Fujian	WY01	Bowl fragment, shallow green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and a large number of fine cracks cover the glaze surface; the body is hard, dark gray in color, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; the inner center of the bowl base is glazed-scraped, the inner side of the ring foot is unglazed; no decorative patterns.
	WY02	Bowl fragment, shallow green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and no cracks are found on the glaze surface; the body is hard, light gray in color, with a thin body and a small number of pores and impurities distributed inside; incised circle patterns are carved on the outer wall.
	WY03	Bowl fragment, shallow green glaze, glaze layer is thick, and no cracks are found on the glaze surface; the body is hard, grayish-white in color, with a thick body; incised lines are carved on both inner and outer walls.
	WY04	Bowl fragment, shallow green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and there are many cracks on the glaze surface; the body is hard, grayish-white in color, with a thin body and a small number of pores distributed inside; incised circle patterns are carved on the outer wall.
	WY05	Bowl fragment, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and no cracks are found on the glaze surface; the body is hard, light gray in color, with a thin body and a small number of pores distributed inside; the inner center of the bowl base is glazed-scraped, the inner side of the ring foot is unglazed; no decorative patterns.
	WY06	Base fragment of bowl, shallow green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and there are many cracks on the glaze surface; the body is hard, pale white in color, with a thick body and contains pores and impurities inside.
	WY07	Bowl fragment, shallow green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and no cracks are found on the glaze surface; the body is hard, white and delicate in texture, with a thin body and a small number of pores distributed inside; incised circle patterns are carved on the outer wall.
	WY08	Bowl fragment, blackish-green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and cracks are visible on the glaze surface; the body is hard, dark gray in color, with a thick body and contains pores and impurities inside.
	WY09	Bowl fragment, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thick, and cracks are visible on the glaze surface; the body is hard, pale grayish-white in color, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; incised circle patterns are carved on the outer wall.
	WY10	Bowl fragment, shallow green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and no cracks are found on the glaze surface; the body is hard, grayish-white in color, with a thin body and a small number of pores distributed inside; incised circle patterns are carved on the outer wall.
	WY11	Fragment, glaze color is deep grayish-cyan, glaze layer is thin, glaze quality is relatively transparent, and no cracks are found on the glaze surface; the body is hard, dark gray in color, with a thin body and contains pores and impurities inside; incised circle patterns are carved on the outer wall.
	WY12	Fragment, cyan green glaze, glaze layer is thin, glaze quality is relatively opaque, and cracks are visible on the glaze surface; the body is hard, grayish-white in color, with a thin body and contains pores and impurities inside.
Jingdezhen kiln, Jiangxi	JDZY01	Dish fragment, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thin, and cracks are visible on the glaze surface; the body is hard, pale grayish-white and delicate in texture, with a thick body; both inner and outer walls are decorated with incised patterns, and the inner side of the ring foot is unglazed.
	JDZY02	Dish fragment, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thick, and cracks are visible on the glaze surface; the body is hard, white and delicate in texture, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; both inner and outer walls are decorated with incised patterns, and the inner side of the ring foot is unglazed.
	JDZY03	Side fragment of dish, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thick, and cracks are visible on the glaze surface; the body is hard, white and delicate in texture, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; vertical incised lines are carved on the outer wall.
	JDZY04	Side fragment of dish, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thick, and cracks are visible on the glaze surface; the body is hard, white and delicate in texture, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; the inner side of the ring foot is unglazed, and both inner and outer walls are decorated with incised patterns.
	JDZY05	Base fragment of dish, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thick, and a large number of cracks cover the glaze surface; the body is hard, white and delicate in texture, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; the inner side of the ring foot is unglazed.
	JDZY06	Dish fragment, bluish-green glaze, with a large number of bubbles inside the glaze, and the glaze layer is thin; the body is hard, white and delicate in texture, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; no decorative patterns.
	JDZY07	Utensil fragment, bluish-green glaze, glaze layer is thick, and the glaze surface is covered with a large number of cracks and bubbles; the body is hard, grayish-white in color, with a thick body and a relatively large number of pores inside.
	JDZY08	Dish fragment, yellowish-brownish-green glaze, glaze layer is thick, a small number of cracks are present on the glaze surface, and a large number of bubbles are contained in the glaze; the body is hard, grayish-white and delicate in texture, with a thick body and a small number of pores distributed inside; the inner side of the ring foot is unglazed, and incised circle patterns are carved on the inner wall.

Figure 2. Schematic Location Map of Jianyang Bowl Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln and Dayao Longquan Kiln Sites.

2.2. Analysis Methods

2.2.1. Quantitative Description of Glaze Color

This study employed an NF-333 portable colorimeter (Nippon Denshoku Industries Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) from the Jingdezhen Ceramic University Institute of Ancient Ceramics to conduct quantitative analysis of the surface color of the porcelain glazes. The aim was to further clarify the visual characteristics of celadon glaze hues. Measurements were performed under a D65-2 standard illumination source. Prior to analysis, the instrument was calibrated using pure black and white standard tiles. To ensure data reliability, three measurements were taken at different spots on each sample, and the average value was calculated. The results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Color data of celadon glaze L*, a*, and b* from Jianyang Bowl Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln, and Longquan Kiln.

Sample	L*	a*	b*	Sample	L*	a*	b*	Sample	L*	a*	b*	Sample	L*	a*	b*
WY-01	49.17	−1.94	15.9	WY-11	40.58	−2.3	11.51	LDFDY1	56.86	−4.82	11.8	LDFDY12	59.27	−7.66	7.39
WY-02	46.28	−0.78	8.3	WY-12	52.7	−3.18	11.98	LDFDY2	64.32	−6.59	9.57	LDFDY13	50.11	0.6	12.52
WY-03	45.08	−3.46	9.85	JDZY-01	58.76	−6.35	9.14	LDFDY3	60.4	−5.83	10.66	LDLBJ1	59.66	7	25.98
WY-04	51.43	−3.47	14.71	JDZY-02	51.1	−6.18	13.39	LDFDY5	48.19	6.43	19.29	LDLBJ2	54.89	9.6	23.63
WY-05	56.23	−4.04	7.61	JDZY-03	52.19	−6.62	11.26	LDFDY6	57.27	−3.17	12.6	LDLBJ3	53.92	8.58	25.56
WY-06	55.13	−3.56	12.43	JDZY-04	42.81	−10.17	8.07	LDFDY7	55.5	−6.16	10.35	LDLBJ4	52.14	3.56	16.45
WY-07	53.36	−2.81	7.76	JDZY-05	47.07	−8.81	13.98	LDFDY8	42.68	1.47	10.66	LDLBJ5	63.39	−7.21	3.59
WY-08	42.34	−1.75	8.97	JDZY-06	51.22	−6.82	10.41	LDFDY9	48.15	−0.03	8.14	LDLBJ6	60.28	−5.9	5.18
WY-09	44.45	−4.84	11.17	JDZY-07	39.56	−6.52	14.75	LDFDY10	42.11	0.26	10
WY-10	55.34	−2.49	6.81	JDZY-08	44.58	−1.7	14.26	LDFDY11	44.52	2.42	14.56

2.2.2. Major Element Analysis

The major elements of the body and glaze of celadon wares were analyzed by means of an EDXRF (Model Eagle-III) manufactured by EDAX Inc., Mahwah, NJ, USA, aiming to clarify the manufacturing techniques of different kilns and the differences in raw materials from various producing areas. The specific experimental conditions were as follows: side-window rhodium target, 50 mW X-ray, downward irradiation mode; the tube voltage of the X-ray tube was set at 50 kV, the tube current at 200 μA, and the beam spot diameter at 300 μm, with a vacuum optical path and a deadtime of approximately 25%. Prior to the experiment, the samples were cleaned, cut into pieces of about 1 cm in size, and then dried. In addition, thirteen ceramic samples from the Shanghai Institute of Ceramics of the Chinese Academy of Science (SICCAS) with a known range of data accuracy, were used as standard samples to ensure the accuracy of the test data. Except for MgO, which exhibits a low content and large fluctuation, the coefficients of variation for all other components are approximately 1–10%, indicating that these data are reasonably reliable for reference. Moreover, to reduce sample errors, three measurement points were selected for each sample, and the average value was taken as the final experimental data. The experimental results are presented in Table 3 and Table 4.

Table 3. EDXRF quantitative analysis results of celadon vessels from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln (wt%).

Sample	Na2O	MgO	Al2O3	SiO2	K2O	CaO	TiO2	Fe2O3
WY-01-b	0.03	0.55	20.84	68.98	5.84	0.53	0.13	2.09
WY-02-b	0.73	0.11	15.64	76.58	4.10	0.28	0.06	1.50
WY-03-b	0.03	0.04	18.14	73.89	4.87	0.05	0.09	1.88
WY-04-b	0.93	0.36	19.12	71.82	4.81	0.05	0.11	1.81
WY-05-b	0.68	0.35	21.34	69.50	4.96	0.11	0.09	1.96
WY-06-b	0.53	0.41	21.73	69.50	4.25	0.05	0.08	2.46
WY-07-b	0.52	0.48	20.95	70.56	4.53	0.13	0.08	1.75
WY-08-b	0.51	0.58	19.85	71.01	4.95	0.05	0.10	1.96
WY-09-b	0.27	0.30	17.01	75.19	4.30	0.12	0.11	1.70
WY-10-b	0.53	0.50	19.28	71.45	4.95	0.17	0.11	2.02
WY-11-b	1.78	0.51	17.39	72.44	4.78	0.27	0.09	1.74
WY-12-b	1.03	0.61	20.51	68.50	4.47	0.21	0.12	3.56
Average value	0.63	0.40	19.32	71.62	4.73	0.17	0.10	2.03
Standard deviation	0.45	0.17	1.84	2.42	0.44	0.14	0.02	0.51
JDZY-01-b	2.62	0.39	17.99	71.33	4.07	1.11	0.09	1.39
JDZY-02-b	1.25	0.33	20.50	70.73	4.59	0.56	0.06	0.97
JDZY-03-b	0.79	0.60	19.23	72.46	4.65	0.19	0.06	1.02
JDZY-04-b	0.86	0.10	18.66	73.19	4.34	0.55	0.08	1.23
JDZY-05-b	0.44	1.34	17.98	73.35	4.51	0.34	0.09	0.96
JDZY-06-b	0.79	0.27	19.47	72.12	4.62	0.29	0.07	1.37
JDZY-07-b	2.08	0.81	20.10	68.25	3.81	0.90	0.28	2.78
JDZY-08-b	2.73	0.27	17.40	72.86	3.59	0.86	0.11	1.18
Average value	1.45	0.51	18.91	71.79	4.27	0.60	0.11	1.36
Standard deviation	0.84	0.37	1.03	1.58	0.38	0.31	0.07	0.56

Table 4. EDXRF quantitative analysis results of celadon glaze from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln (wt%).

Sample	Na2O	MgO	Al2O3	SiO2	K2O	CaO	TiO2	Fe2O3
WY-01-g	0.95	1.85	15.37	68.51	6.11	4.58	0.08	1.56
WY-02-g	0.86	0.82	14.57	71.19	4.35	5.85	0.03	1.34
WY-03-g	0.29	1.68	14.30	69.98	4.98	6.19	0.15	1.43
WY-04-g	0.42	1.93	14.68	67.97	6.07	6.13	0.08	1.71
WY-05-g	0.85	0.07	13.83	70.58	4.96	7.27	0.05	1.39
WY-06-g	0.79	0.78	14.56	71.01	4.70	5.26	0.06	1.84
WY-07-g	0.51	2.18	10.75	72.41	3.78	7.75	0.03	1.59
WY-08-g	1.39	1.59	12.96	71.61	5.43	4.65	0.06	1.30
WY-09-g	0.60	0.97	13.07	71.51	4.83	6.23	0.05	1.75
WY-10-g	0.03	0.19	12.69	72.25	4.46	8.15	0.04	1.20
WY-11-g	0.03	2.38	12.44	70.28	5.37	6.66	0.06	1.77
WY-12-g	0.03	1.95	12.58	68.45	3.99	10.47	0.04	1.48
Average value	0.56	1.37	13.48	70.48	4.92	6.60	0.06	1.53
Standard deviation	0.41	0.74	1.24	1.43	0.71	1.58	0.03	0.20
JDZY-01-g	0.71	0.24	12.44	74.45	5.83	4.02	0.10	1.21
JDZY-02-g	1.08	0.07	12.59	70.07	5.31	8.44	0.14	1.30
JDZY-03-g	0.73	0.11	12.46	70.70	5.98	7.29	0.10	1.63
JDZY-04-g	0.83	0.29	12.44	72.64	6.13	5.59	0.12	0.96
JDZY-05-g	0.85	0.62	12.78	71.37	6.09	5.64	0.10	1.54
JDZY-06-g	1.68	0.85	14.75	66.26	4.85	9.45	0.09	1.08
JDZY-07-g	0.03	0.06	11.46	74.24	3.97	7.10	0.12	2.03
JDZY-08-g	1.95	0.57	12.88	72.51	4.96	5.33	0.08	0.72
Average value	0.98	0.35	12.72	71.53	5.39	6.61	0.11	1.31
Standard deviation	0.56	0.27	0.86	2.47	0.71	1.67	0.02	0.39

2.2.3. Trace Element Analysis

LA-ICP-MS analysis of trace elements was conducted at the National Center of Geostandard Measurement and Testing, using a New Wave Research Inc. 193 nm ArF excimer laser (Fremont, CA, USA) coupled with a Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. ELEMENT 2 high-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (HR-ICP-MS, Waltham, MA, USA) The experimental conditions were set as follows: a 40 μm laser spot with a pulse frequency of 10 Hz was employed for laser ablation, and helium (He) was used as the purging gas. Sample preparation was required for all celadon samples before the experiment: a small piece was first cut from the edge of each specimen with a cutting machine, and then made into sample targets with a diameter of 2.54 mm using epoxy resin, which were subsequently polished until the cross-sections of the body and glaze were exposed for measurement. In addition, NIST 612 was used as the external calibration standard, and NIST 610 as the monitoring standard [7]. The data calculation was performed by means of ICPMSDataCal (Version 10.2). To guarantee the accuracy of the experimental data, three ablation tests were conducted on the body and glaze of each sample, and the average value was calculated as the final result. The analytical results of the typical samples were listed in Table 5, the accuracy of the elements was mostly <5%, and the experimental results are shown in Table 6 and Table 7. The relevant data of the Longquan Kiln has been tested by Wang Min previously, and the results are shown in Table 8 and Table 9 for details.

Table 5. Information of reference samples and standards used for calculation in this study.

EDXRF (wt%)	SC12
	MV		CV		%RSD
Na2O	1.23		1.13		5.99%
MgO	0.11		0.28		59.92%
Al2O3	26.48		28.09		4.16%
SiO2	67.23		66.41		0.86%
K2O	2.1		2.26		5.19%
CaO	0.61		0.66		5.57%
TiO2	0.1		0.08		13.34%
Fe2O3	0.8		0.7		9.25%
LA-ICP-MS (ppm)	610			612
	MV	GRem	%RSD	MV	GRem	%RSD
MnO	632.26	573.16	6.93%	54.58	49.96	6.25%
P2O5	794.16	945.90	12.33%	168.48	106.73	31.73%
Sc	461.71	455	1.03%	42.62	39.90	4.66%
V	453.83	450	0.60%	38.76	38.80	0.06%
Cr	411.23	408	0.56%	42.88	36.40	11.56%
Co	414.29	410	0.74%	34.79	35.50	1.43%
Ni	463.72	458.7	0.77%	41.17	38.80	4.19%
Cu	446.33	441	0.85%	39.53	37.80	3.16%
Zn	464.33	460	0.66%	41.01	39.10	3.38%
Ga	436.95	433	0.64%	37.61	36.90	1.35%
Ge	451.85	447	0.76%	41.37	36.10	9.62%
As	328.06	325	0.66%	37.03	35.70	2.58%
Rb	429.98	425.7	0.71%	30.89	31.40	1.16%
Sr	520.29	515.5	0.65%	77.90	78.40	0.45%
Y	466.81	462	0.73%	39.11	38.30	1.48%
Zr	453.23	448	0.82%	41.38	37.90	6.21%
Nb	469.61	465	0.70%	38.10	38.90	1.46%
Mo	420.77	417	0.64%	37.82	37.40	0.80%
Sn	434.07	430	0.67%	38.86	38.60	0.48%
Cs	369.55	366	0.68%	36.78	42.70	10.54%
Ba	456.34	452	0.68%	42.27	39.30	5.15%
Hf	444.95	435	1.16%	40.82	36.70	7.51%
Ta	444.95	446	1.09%	38.02	37.60	0.78%
W	450	444	0.95%	39.57	38.00	2.86%
Bi	388.69	384	0.86%	31.44	30.20	2.84%
Pb	388.69	426	0.68%	35.24	38.57	6.39%
Th	463.61	457.2	0.99%	35.08	37.79	5.25%
U	466.1	461.5	0.70%	32.74	37.38	9.35%
La	444.95	440	0.79%	36.05	36.00	0.09%
Ce	457.33	453	0.67%	36.04	38.40	4.49%
Pr	452.98	448	0.78%	35.64	37.90	4.34%
Nd	435.52	430	0.90%	40.15	35.50	8.69%
Sm	459.64	453	1.03%	41.10	37.70	6.11%
EU	453.25	447	0.98%	37.11	35.60	2.93%
Gd	454.88	449	0.92%	41.77	37.30	7.99%
Tb	443.59	437	1.06%	36.18	37.60	2.73%
Dy	443.35	437	1.02%	37.95	35.50	4.72%
Ho	456.34	449	1.15%	37.47	38.30	1.54%
Er	461.79	455	1.05%	40.67	38.00	4.79%
Tm	442.3	435	1.18%	35.91	36.80	1.73%
Yb	456.87	450	1.07%	40.59	39.20	2.47%
Lu	445.7	439	1.07%	36.74	37.00	0.50%

Table 6. Element analysis results of celadon vessels from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln by LA-ICP-MS (ppm).

Sample	WY-01-b	WY-02-b	WY-03-b	WY-04-b	WY-05-b	WY-06-b	WY-07-b	WY-08-b	WY-09-b	WY-10-b	WY-11-b	WY-12-b	JDZY-01-b	JDZY-02-b	JDZY-03-b	JDZY-04-b	JDZY-05-b	JDZY-06-b	JDZY-07-b	JDZY-08-b
Sc	7	5	7	5	6	7	5	6	4	5	7	6	7	5	5	5	3	5	6	5
V	21	4	15	12	9	13	7	12	11	11	15	13	14	5	6	12	4	8	33	10
Cr	15	6	12	10	10	11	7	9	12	8	19	9	12	9	10	13	9	12	11	11
Co	3	2	3	3	3	4	3	3	4	2	2	5	7	2	3	4	3	5	4	9
Zn	87	47	69	71	36	70	45	74	78	54	78	75	43	12	73	52	66	38	91	51
Ga	32	21	29	26	31	27	26	24	23	26	29	29	40	21	39	28	25	30	33	24
Rb	373	361	398	316	355	368	320	387	365	336	420	390	348	342	356	412	372	390	332	293
Sr	24	30	17	20	22	16	26	20	30	19	21	24	26	21	13	19	15	16	23	27
Y	32	54	55	40	57	68	46	41	40	79	31	90	21	13	9	14	15	12	10	12
Zr	68	93	54	61	228	104	68	91	40	78	56	87	100	25	61	46	20	24	72	33
Nb	21	16	25	22	26	30	20	24	16	51	30	24	48	40	35	56	42	33	25	41
Sn	6	3	6	4	4	5	3	5	4	4	8	6	6	4	5	5	5	6	14	4
Cs	10	10	11	9	14	11	9	11	11	9	10	11	35	22	23	29	23	30	39	32
Ba	154	365	85	89	244	186	85	311	125	177	103	334	170	196	139	183	183	168	167	121
P	178	99	146	152	147	142	159	237	253	157	186	134	338	253	240	400	235	304	511	345
Mn	254	505	246	219	316	407	339	521	249	271	283	498	562	443	450	532	434	645	346	553
Hf	3	4	3	3	12	5	4	4	2	4	3	4	5	1	2	2	1	1	2	2
Pb	113	67	71	67	74	115	76	94	98	61	89	137	32	5	38	40	30	27	44	48
Th	29	187	28	26	40	40	30	31	19	43	35	37	19	9	6	9	5	8	9	10
U	5	6	4	4	8	5	3	5	3	7	4	5	8	4	4	5	5	5	11	4
La	36	30	45	50	52	66	72	47	47	32	30	59	28	16	8	10	5	10	24	14
Ce	65	42	72	64	45	74	130	65	59	52	49	69	47	21	9	12	8	11	41	21
Pr	7	7	9	10	12	14	16	10	8	8	6	13	6	3	2	2	1	2	5	3
Nd	30	28	34	36	46	54	61	36	29	32	23	48	28	14	9	10	6	11	21	13
Sm	6	8	7	8	11	13	13	8	6	10	5	11	7	3	3	3	4	3	4	4
Eu	0.7	0.8	0.5	0.5	1.2	1.2	0.6	0.8	0.6	0.6	0.5	1.6	0.7	0.7	0.5	0.6	0.6	0.7	0.8	0.6
Gd	6	8	8	7	10	13	11	7	6	10	5	13	6	3	3	3	4	3	3	3
Tb	0.9	1.5	1.3	1.1	1.7	2.1	1.5	1.2	1	1.8	0.9	2	0.7	0.5	0.3	0.5	0.6	0.4	0.4	0.4
Dy	6	10	8	7	10	13	8	7	6	12	5	13	4	3	2	3	3	3	2	3
Ho	1.2	2	1.6	1.4	2.1	2.6	1.7	1.4	1.1	2.4	1.1	2.7	0.7	0.4	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.4	0.3	0.4
Er	3	6	5	4	7	7	5	4	3	7	3	8	2	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Tm	0.5	0.8	0.6	0.6	1	1	0.6	0.5	0.4	1	0.5	1.1	0.3	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Yb	3.4	6	4.6	3.9	7.6	6.9	5.5	4.1	3.5	7.5	3.2	8.2	1.3	0.8	0.8	1	1.9	0.9	0.7	0.9
Lu	0.5	0.8	0.6	0.5	1.1	1	0.7	0.6	0.4	0.9	0.4	1.2	0.3	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
ΣREE	166.74	151.08	196.47	192.85	208.67	267.19	325.00	193.51	171.56	176.56	131.84	251.30	131.94	65.87	38.64	48.44	36.23	47.59	104.50	63.97

Table 7. Element analysis results of celadon glaze from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln by LA-ICP-MS (ppm).

Sample	WY-01-g	WY-02-g	WY-03-g	WY-04-g	WY-05-g	WY-06-g	WY-07-g	WY-08-g	WY-09-g	WY-10-g	WY-11-g	WY-12-g	JDZY-01-g	JDZY-02-g	JDZY-03-g	JDZY-04-g	JDZY-05-g	JDZY-06-g	JDZY-07-g	JDZY-08-g
Sc	7	5	6	5	4	5	5	6	5	6	7	6	4	4	4	5	5	4	6	4
V	3	3	4	6	5	2	4	3	6	2	5	3	14	19	16	20	24	15	28	14
Cr	4	7	6	8	7	6	8	6	7	8	6	6	14	14	15	19	23	14	27	11
Co	3	2	3	6	3	6	4	3	6	1	3	6	4	2	2	2	3	2	4	5
Zn	103	55	129	66	57	100	44	106	92	22	216	74	33	21	38	40	37	51	64	71
Ga	24	29	23	24	23	20	29	20	24	21	21	24	34	31	26	26	32	39	27	24
Rb	440	263	283	292	242	210	222	269	273	283	297	242	368	338	330	309	286	267	183	319
Sr	397	79	420	549	76	528	169	474	489	98	644	550	166	184	178	288	204	147	162	191
Y	65	119	55	60	73	55	41	80	54	67	68	59	11	33	14	14	13	14	17	14
Zr	65	97	111	67	59	80	88	60	97	66	102	102	41	36	33	50	49	37	78	41
Nb	44	26	34	24	22	26	25	37	22	34	35	32	16	14	15	16	17	30	13	22
Sn	2	2	6	1	3	3	3	3	2	2	5	3	4	2	3	4	3	4	7	5
Cs	9	6	5	7	6	4	5	4	6	4	5	4	29	23	20	27	18	13	19	20
Ba	1204	173	958	1534	104	1100	260	1063	1273	111	1216	1022	213	205	185	306	253	219	195	247
P	5439	1328	7936	8804	1324	6695	2230	6618	7415	6280	7142	5584	1591	1226	1110	2436	1710	1237	772	1788
Mn	7305	768	8059	8737	1255	9884	2416	10440	8131	856	7444	9789	1295	1183	1123	1887	1572	1549	889	1551
Hf	4	6	7	3	3	5	4	3	5	4	6	6	3	2	2	2	2	2	3	2
Pb	18	35	34	13	24	39	33	25	33	12	43	37	20	2	20	8	13	15	12	34
Th	35	25	34	26	21	30	30	30	30	27	33	38	3	4	3	4	4	3	5	4
U	6	5	7	4	4	5	4	6	5	6	6	5	4	4	3	3	3	3	6	5
La	48	88	63	80	77	58	41	82	67	46	87	62	16	24	21	19	17	23	23	20
Ce	42	27	53	69	24	50	73	69	60	43	5	58	29	51	43	36	32	48	48	32
Pr	8	19	11	13	17	9	8	15	11	10	14.34	10	4	5	5	4	3	5	5	4
Nd	32	75	41	50	63	36	29	55	41	40	52	37	16	24	20	17	15	21	22	18
Sm	8	21	9	10	16	8	7	13	9	10	10	8	4	5	5	4	4	5	5	4
Eu	0.6	1.8	0.7	1.1	1.6	0.8	0.5	0.7	0.9	0.7	1.1	0.9	0.7	0.8	0.8	0.7	0.6	0.9	0.8	0.9
Gd	9	22	9	9	14	8	6	14	8	11	11	9	3	5	4	4	3	4	4	4
Tb	1.6	3.5	1.4	1.5	2.2	1.4	1	2.2	1.3	1.8	1.9	1.6	0.4	0.8	0.5	0.4	0.4	0.5	0.5	0.5
Dy	11	22	9	10	14	9	7	14	8	11	11	9	3	6	3	3	3	3	4	3
Ho	2.2	4.3	2	2.1	2.7	1.9	1.4	2.7	1.7	2.2	2.3	2.0	0.4	1.1	0.5	0.5	0.4	0.5	0.5	0.4
Er	6	12	6	6	7	6	4	8	5	6	7	6	1	3	1	1	1	1	2	1
Tm	0.9	1.7	0.9	0.9	1.1	0.8	0.6	1.1	0.7	0.9	1.0	0.9	0.1	0.4	0.2	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.2
Yb	6.6	12.5	6.5	6	7.8	6	4	7.5	5.3	6.1	7.0	6.0	1	2.6	1.2	1.3	1.3	1	1.7	1.3
Lu	0.9	1.6	0.9	0.9	1	0.9	0.6	1.1	0.8	0.8	1.0	0.9	0.1	0.3	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.1	0.2	0.1
ΣREE	177.92	310.91	213.76	259.24	249.58	197.64	183.68	284.40	219.68	189.19	258.60	211.16	77.68	130.12	104.96	91.07	80.79	112.15	116.54	90.26

Table 8. Data of main and trace elements in Longquan celadon porcelain body (Na₂O-P₂O₅,wt%) (Sc-Lu, ppm).

Sample	LDFDY1	LDFDY2	LDFDY3	LDFDY5	LDFDY6	LDFDY7	LDFDY8	LDFDY9	LDFDY10	LDFDY11	LDFDY12	LDFDY13	LDLBJ1	LDLBJ2	LDLBJ3	LDLBJ4	LDLBJ5	LDLBJ6
Na2O	3.39	2.23	1.88	2.95	2.60	2.97	2.48	1.64	2.49	3.60	2.23	3.02	1.74	1.69	2.32	2.66	1.95	2.27
MgO	1.89	0.70	0.63	1.32	0.97	1.27	0.94	0.05	1.22	1.78	0.81	1.96	0.24	0.63	1.09	1.36	0.87	0.88
Al2O3	19.32	19.65	20.03	19.44	20.74	19.18	21.01	21.65	19.78	21.25	19.89	18.45	23.27	21.95	22.37	20.97	23.46	24.87
SiO2	65.91	68.20	67.45	66.19	66.19	67.12	65.89	66.37	67.46	64.18	67.76	66.81	65.74	66.74	65.49	66.03	63.98	61.72
K2O	4.94	4.55	4.52	5.72	5.07	4.90	4.69	5.07	4.14	4.45	4.19	4.70	3.59	3.61	3.44	3.28	4.35	4.85
CaO	0.09	0.09	0.30	0.09	0.06	0.08	0.09	0.15	0.15	0.18	0.10	0.20	0.10	0.07	0.08	0.17	0.08	0.11
TiO2	0.12	0.15	0.19	0.10	0.11	0.12	0.16	0.22	0.16	0.11	0.21	0.22	0.21	0.24	0.18	0.24	0.22	0.21
Fe2O3	1.33	1.42	2.00	1.20	1.25	1.36	1.75	1.85	1.59	1.44	1.83	1.64	2.11	2.07	2.03	2.29	2.09	2.10
MnO	0.17	0.18	0.16	0.12	0.11	0.11	0.11	0.10	0.07	0.12	0.11	0.10	0.07	0.07	0.06	0.07	0.07	0.06
P2O5	0.00	0.05	0.01	0.04	0.02	0.06	0.03	0.04	0.04	0.04	0.09	0.06	0.04	0.07	0.04	0.05	0.05	0.04
Sc	15.40	12.64	14.01	12.13	10.09	9.72	8.54	11.72	14.36	11.24	12.55	12.72	38.78	11.57	15.65	20.65	9.91	9.57
V	27.98	17.64	31.88	24.17	25.41	20.47	9.36	26.14	24.65	10.90	24.00	19.85	24.40	27.29	20.93	28.37	28.14	26.37
Cr	8.29	5.07	5.11	6.59	9.52	10.11	4.16	25.09	11.22	4.14	16.80	10.72	12.37	14.58	10.63	11.34	22.53	15.93
Co	3.42	2.17	3.39	4.80	2.78	2.26	1.33	3.03	4.01	1.83	2.37	2.74	9.69	5.37	8.22	5.20	6.21	5.28
Ni	0.46	1.78	9.25	5.88	1.58	4.91	2.17	4.40	4.89	5.16	5.55	5.20	10.51	9.34	7.12	7.90	12.20	11.92
Cu	9.75	11.86	11.21	13.20	10.59	8.42	9.81	7.67	16.69	8.31	7.52	10.84	12.38	11.63	8.79	8.37	7.78	10.02
Zn	111.54	156.15	237.81	155.93	140.58	139.88	121.71	156.99	122.71	121.59	129.54	124.61	173.15	154.34	149.53	154.90	86.31	109.15
Ga	84.91	117.08	86.51	90.82	74.98	43.46	40.82	50.70	61.92	62.84	51.10	58.62	88.65	80.33	65.42	68.22	47.86	50.22
Ge	4.34	3.30	3.79	4.27	3.73	4.04	2.23	3.58	3.06	4.74	2.99	3.59	4.37	9.90	3.38	4.56	2.17	3.71
As	1.12	2.16	1.91	2.80	1.96	0.99	2.02	2.96	3.23	3.32	1.26	2.60	4.43	2.30	1.26	2.08	0.98	2.18
Rb	686.59	612.19	643.30	654.82	577.29	537.60	621.56	594.17	612.36	798.16	628.96	679.83	392.32	426.50	358.70	380.15	555.83	554.04
Sr	37.68	55.06	41.48	45.57	45.18	28.66	37.43	73.78	72.72	59.40	38.78	56.97	43.39	64.50	38.57	46.76	36.36	35.11
Y	55.84	39.24	93.50	40.32	63.66	75.56	49.28	81.00	46.38	72.88	451.30	190.19	94.14	280.79	61.46	52.94	73.35	50.42
Zr	77.51	230.61	181.09	288.72	255.17	117.75	91.58	173.70	167.03	151.97	584.35	301.11	154.58	195.61	178.78	228.46	106.67	119.00
Nb	78.03	34.96	39.01	35.87	31.89	34.46	36.02	31.30	26.14	42.00	47.01	38.38	250.51	42.54	45.13	75.40	34.59	36.67
Mo	10.30	19.51	8.18	8.67	7.26	4.87	7.22	3.77	26.58	15.38	15.23	19.06	5.14	4.28	4.06	2.55	4.49	7.03
Sn	10.75	13.63	11.52	8.77	7.48	9.25	5.59	11.03	7.74	17.78	13.09	12.87	8.95	8.23	5.15	6.02	9.79	7.86
Cs	10.54	12.04	9.59	10.26	9.18	8.53	9.26	12.27	12.11	14.06	10.41	12.20	10.72	12.41	9.64	11.75	9.94	10.03
Ba	284.30	640.24	307.55	373.43	262.93	205.02	271.96	715.13	921.55	512.57	297.23	577.12	861.53	1052.22	838.01	771.39	290.84	271.62
Hf	3.65	9.34	8.62	14.19	13.55	5.61	4.21	7.61	6.55	6.49	26.65	13.23	6.30	7.98	7.62	9.57	4.79	5.28
Ta	7.90	2.66	2.44	2.73	2.37	2.89	2.50	2.46	1.89	3.01	4.40	3.10	17.14	3.11	3.40	6.62	2.56	2.66
W	7.61	2.85	2.99	2.92	2.34	2.22	2.15	3.08	3.81	3.43	3.20	3.48	8.23	5.09	1.80	2.08	1.36	2.37
Au	0.06	0.09	0.01	0.01	0.04	0.00	0.01	0.04	0.05	0.03	0.08	0.05	0.01	0.02	0.02	0.06	0.02	0.01
Bi	0.02	0.01	0.03	3.61	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.06	0.07	1.26	0.07	0.47	0.46	0.16	0.04	0.02	0.06	0.08
Pb	138.27	108.18	188.20	219.09	106.34	150.43	119.25	159.41	103.70	152.10	125.70	127.17	152.40	84.66	153.75	101.78	98.00	150.05
Th	61.25	58.35	55.12	64.64	68.28	67.14	60.54	66.04	82.15	77.51	116.83	92.16	51.24	69.40	44.12	50.55	56.73	55.88
U	5.19	9.44	7.94	8.75	7.28	5.64	6.62	8.30	8.56	9.02	17.14	11.57	7.45	9.61	6.38	6.86	6.63	5.93
La	49.61	71.74	73.90	33.49	30.56	84.01	32.24	63.83	93.29	70.95	56.25	73.49	94.60	200.37	71.45	79.61	75.83	73.26
Ce	93.64	162.13	85.00	112.53	81.88	97.44	68.00	139.28	188.06	121.23	156.17	155.15	151.97	130.69	115.94	154.49	132.43	130.75
Pr	13.09	17.26	16.07	9.16	7.58	20.01	8.82	14.66	19.21	16.73	14.00	16.65	22.13	46.06	17.48	19.17	17.42	17.11
Nd	54.28	66.26	63.50	36.94	31.48	77.09	36.97	58.47	72.50	67.01	60.64	66.72	89.11	180.39	70.21	74.19	66.28	65.70
Sm	14.31	13.63	18.72	10.41	9.09	20.60	10.51	14.10	13.84	16.70	17.90	16.15	20.66	37.72	17.85	13.16	15.57	15.04
Eu	1.22	1.50	2.09	1.14	0.88	1.57	0.84	1.61	1.69	2.00	1.15	1.61	2.90	5.26	2.15	2.17	1.70	1.44
Gd	13.60	10.45	20.47	8.64	9.56	18.56	9.73	13.13	11.11	15.35	19.06	15.17	19.19	32.59	14.62	10.21	14.41	12.26
Tb	1.94	1.50	3.47	1.46	1.65	2.74	1.52	2.16	1.52	2.36	3.61	2.50	2.90	4.77	2.35	1.50	2.18	1.73
Dy	10.77	8.27	19.02	9.05	10.44	15.31	9.61	13.58	8.05	14.02	23.03	15.03	17.63	31.51	13.23	7.87	13.07	10.08
Ho	2.25	1.59	3.55	1.72	2.16	2.88	1.86	2.77	1.64	2.70	4.30	2.88	3.42	6.68	2.34	1.60	2.60	1.85
Er	6.12	4.18	8.95	5.11	6.19	7.91	5.02	7.63	4.18	7.70	11.56	7.82	9.03	18.91	6.66	4.39	6.61	5.21
Tm	0.82	0.69	1.29	0.76	1.00	1.07	0.80	1.09	0.71	1.01	1.69	1.14	1.29	2.86	0.93	0.73	0.94	0.73
Yb	5.77	4.68	9.34	6.27	6.34	7.68	5.94	7.52	4.55	7.49	10.53	7.52	9.19	18.71	6.64	4.79	6.71	5.27
Lu	0.84	0.75	1.30	0.96	1.07	1.10	0.78	1.07	0.74	1.06	1.72	1.17	1.22	2.69	0.91	0.77	0.98	0.76
ΣREE	267.43	363.89	325.37	236.66	198.82	356.87	191.86	339.85	420.35	345.25	379.90	381.83	444.02	716.52	341.84	373.87	355.75	340.45

Table 9. Data of main and trace elements in Longquan celadon glaze (Na₂O-P₂O₅, wt%) (Sc-Lu, ppm).

Sample	LDFDY1	LDFDY2	LDFDY3	LDFDY5	LDFDY6	LDFDY7	LDFDY8	LDFDY9	LDFDY10	LDFDY11	LDFDY12	LDFDY13	LDLBJ1	LDLBJ2	LDLBJ3	LDLBJ4	LDLBJ5	LDLBJ6
Na2O	2.13	3.00	1.97	1.62	3.85	1.73	2.85	1.99	2.50	3.67	2.98	3.11	3.39	3.00	1.74	1.66	3.62	3.32
MgO	1.28	1.70	1.13	1.16	2.10	1.20	1.13	0.52	1.06	1.62	1.45	1.89	2.26	2.65	0.59	0.83	1.88	1.74
Al2O3	12.24	12.37	14.12	11.91	11.96	13.02	12.95	12.93	11.15	13.56	13.76	13.73	12.65	12.78	12.66	13.42	12.60	12.22
SiO2	65.86	66.46	65.71	66.07	67.61	66.38	67.53	67.43	68.93	67.08	66.13	66.47	66.50	64.18	67.18	65.88	66.21	67.53
K2O	5.18	5.50	5.89	4.89	5.38	5.67	5.00	5.19	4.93	5.21	4.74	5.57	4.53	4.11	3.91	4.02	4.38	4.42
CaO	8.35	6.40	6.38	10.25	4.74	7.64	6.47	6.78	6.90	4.76	6.61	4.42	6.74	9.38	10.02	9.62	7.28	6.71
TiO2	0.16	0.14	0.17	0.16	0.17	0.16	0.17	0.21	0.13	0.14	0.13	0.26	0.15	0.18	0.15	0.18	0.13	0.11
Fe2O3	1.80	1.43	1.63	0.94	1.19	1.20	0.90	1.95	1.40	0.96	1.21	1.55	0.78	0.73	0.75	1.39	0.90	0.95
MnO	0.80	1.14	0.76	0.58	0.65	1.13	0.30	0.40	0.88	0.70	0.57	0.72	0.90	0.83	1.85	1.13	0.15	0.13
P2O5	0.88	0.58	0.69	0.61	1.01	0.81	0.27	0.17	0.82	0.51	0.34	0.56	0.87	0.77	0.95	0.82	0.25	0.20
Sc	8.21	10.03	6.97	14.99	8.63	8.29	8.44	8.10	8.28	14.65	8.41	10.45	7.42	7.87	8.42	8.04	7.16	6.02
V	11.10	9.39	8.76	9.20	12.77	12.71	12.90	10.63	11.26	22.42	10.77	14.82	11.76	10.88	11.87	10.21	6.25	5.93
Cr	0.00	3.95	1.03	7.00	2.57	8.85	4.27	2.21	8.20	2.26	1.55	4.00	4.30	5.20	6.70	4.98	2.34	1.24
Co	2.65	2.75	1.51	1.91	4.01	2.56	1.94	1.78	3.98	2.25	1.69	2.64	3.82	2.83	3.62	3.23	1.94	1.44
Ni	4.29	8.60	5.94	3.48	4.60	12.07	6.70	3.91	6.31	2.38	6.95	5.21	10.17	10.73	15.32	10.31	6.77	2.26
Cu	48.08	65.92	51.65	40.49	35.13	97.78	18.70	36.04	43.65	30.58	39.00	37.74	62.00	66.18	65.50	69.06	35.00	35.52
Zn	66.79	116.05	88.61	164.11	117.32	80.29	190.12	94.07	696.22	218.53	137.09	350.61	2307.43	266.56	238.09	188.06	105.71	82.46
Ga	302.42	330.33	242.32	267.80	265.14	94.08	52.27	43.70	65.43	58.08	67.99	63.83	82.64	99.89	81.76	87.90	74.56	59.58
Ge	4.78	6.40	5.32	4.38	7.07	2.60	5.28	2.93	9.62	3.19	7.94	6.92	5.61	3.56	4.92	4.65	2.90	3.07
As	3.27	4.41	3.15	12.35	4.92	1.65	4.66	4.50	14.11	13.00	3.43	10.18	222.13	22.64	20.91	10.19	1.19	3.20
Rb	577.07	627.37	559.13	461.85	658.17	558.73	622.72	556.16	635.38	620.38	560.89	605.55	498.88	381.01	434.86	414.14	460.88	447.17
Sr	1078.78	991.18	760.92	819.93	705.12	1192.29	429.22	617.74	646.86	916.55	745.74	769.72	937.13	1541.28	1509.88	1125.70	1052.91	912.82
Y	65.33	71.89	48.15	49.82	108.06	83.05	53.07	61.20	48.57	60.05	53.18	53.93	42.87	49.69	57.60	57.63	47.77	40.58
Zr	274.79	213.05	133.97	105.75	114.71	189.33	116.97	147.75	143.67	151.69	160.08	151.82	186.57	126.87	170.62	146.97	150.06	148.81
Nb	26.72	44.72	28.26	191.82	32.45	42.54	44.54	36.71	26.10	167.63	54.10	82.61	23.23	23.63	40.06	30.21	23.20	17.40
Mo	9.27	28.24	11.66	7.85	12.04	15.55	5.11	7.41	18.95	15.77	19.38	18.03	20.28	8.97	15.17	9.72	11.73	12.95
Sn	4.56	6.76	5.16	8.42	7.11	5.56	9.54	6.60	7.56	11.76	5.27	8.20	11.10	3.79	6.77	3.64	3.46	3.33
Cs	6.13	7.61	6.07	5.15	7.91	6.09	7.11	6.28	8.55	6.19	5.76	6.83	5.87	6.04	5.20	6.22	4.45	4.22
Ba	2140.53	2334.32	1691.15	1941.61	1760.56	2369.16	1247.50	1117.57	2479.45	2078.21	1457.94	2005.20	2321.73	3361.87	2424.50	2897.70	1763.96	1528.79
Hf	14.49	8.88	6.87	4.96	5.36	8.61	5.79	7.76	6.64	8.28	7.89	7.60	9.02	5.41	8.17	6.28	7.26	7.32
Ta	2.42	3.42	3.50	20.21	2.84	4.81	5.71	3.30	2.09	14.34	6.61	7.68	2.16	2.23	3.53	2.36	1.97	1.30
W	3.01	3.80	1.63	6.07	3.18	4.40	3.65	2.79	2.69	40.69	3.00	15.46	4.69	1.98	2.70	3.25	3.09	1.53
Au	0.00	0.00	0.01	0.09	0.05	0.01	0.02	0.02	0.03	0.05	0.00	0.03	0.02	0.00	0.03	0.04	0.01	0.02
Bi	0.00	0.01	0.02	4.19	0.01	0.04	0.11	0.09	0.00	0.25	0.02	0.09	1.48	0.14	0.06	0.07	0.03	0.06
Pb	27.16	59.65	58.86	85.36	82.64	40.93	151.62	46.99	130.11	51.36	42.54	74.67	909.12	55.20	97.79	60.30	25.83	29.69
Th	45.70	69.78	50.09	46.02	55.03	55.97	59.88	56.08	50.92	58.95	53.52	54.46	71.85	43.64	99.54	44.53	49.19	55.91
U	7.70	7.88	7.30	6.01	7.22	8.13	7.86	7.15	7.30	9.13	7.00	7.81	7.61	5.72	7.37	8.07	7.07	6.39
La	88.82	83.17	62.82	91.10	193.81	116.98	55.83	47.09	82.85	69.45	34.76	62.36	65.48	78.48	175.28	83.71	48.12	30.08
Ce	103.75	152.01	77.06	89.97	194.97	136.49	89.99	83.75	126.95	108.82	58.35	98.04	106.86	82.89	319.98	120.92	69.32	37.93
Pr	16.19	18.20	11.93	18.10	41.56	21.87	11.47	10.39	15.50	13.71	7.65	12.29	11.57	15.01	37.00	16.76	10.44	6.68
Nd	61.45	71.13	45.00	69.18	158.02	82.60	45.70	41.28	57.83	52.57	31.29	47.23	43.74	56.71	140.95	62.63	38.20	25.46
Sm	12.32	16.62	10.27	12.99	32.76	18.29	11.35	9.65	11.81	12.30	8.06	10.73	9.13	11.85	27.80	13.13	9.05	6.63
Eu	1.16	2.03	1.25	1.39	2.03	1.80	1.72	0.96	1.47	1.12	0.91	1.16	1.03	1.50	2.06	1.59	0.78	0.70
Gd	11.54	13.99	9.59	10.56	24.59	16.84	10.20	9.46	10.61	11.33	7.67	9.87	7.55	9.85	19.28	11.61	7.78	6.17
Tb	1.72	2.21	1.43	1.52	3.48	2.54	1.65	1.63	1.45	1.71	1.33	1.50	1.22	1.54	2.35	1.65	1.36	1.05
Dy	10.25	12.64	8.67	8.77	19.36	14.55	9.99	10.44	9.02	11.13	9.24	9.80	7.04	9.17	11.98	10.32	8.43	6.74
Ho	2.11	2.51	1.69	1.76	3.68	2.84	1.84	2.15	1.73	2.12	1.80	1.88	1.53	1.76	2.06	2.04	1.69	1.46
Er	5.89	6.81	4.62	4.54	9.80	8.05	5.23	5.82	4.73	5.83	5.27	5.28	4.13	4.83	5.36	5.63	4.65	4.19
Tm	0.87	1.06	0.67	0.72	1.33	1.16	0.78	0.91	0.72	0.88	0.77	0.79	0.64	0.74	0.78	0.82	0.72	0.62
Yb	5.81	6.96	4.78	4.39	8.90	7.44	5.22	6.72	5.01	6.06	5.62	5.56	4.45	5.08	5.90	5.62	5.11	4.68
Lu	0.90	1.05	0.67	0.69	1.29	1.16	0.84	0.93	0.77	0.88	0.88	0.84	0.73	0.75	0.81	0.84	0.74	0.71
ΣREE	322.77	390.39	240.45	315.70	695.60	432.62	251.81	231.18	330.46	297.91	173.58	267.32	265.09	280.15	751.61	337.27	206.38	133.10

3. Experimental Results and Analysis

3.1. Analysis and Discussion of the Provenance Signatures of Porcelain Body

Cluster analysis is one of the core methods for provenance determination of porcelain. Based on the principles of multivariate statistics and following the analytical logic of “like objects cluster together”, it focuses on classifying research objects according to their similarity: samples within the same cluster exhibit high similarity, while those from different clusters show significant difference [8,9]. To identify the provenance characteristics of celadon from the three kilns, this study first adopts fuzzy cluster analysis to classify the data of eight major elements, namely Na₂O, MgO, Al₂O₃, SiO₂, K₂O, CaO, TiO₂, and Fe₂O₃, obtained from EDXRF tests of the porcelain body samples from Jianyang Bowl Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln and Longquan Kiln.

The analytical results are shown in Figure 3. When the distance threshold is set to 5, all samples can be divided into four clusters: two corresponding to the Dayao section of Longquan Kiln, one corresponding to Jianyang Bowl Kiln, and one corresponding to Jingdezhen Kiln. This result indicates that principal component cluster analysis based on major elements can roughly achieve the provenance discrimination of the three kilns. However, careful observation reveals a cross-clustering phenomenon between some Jianyang Bowl Kiln samples (WY02, 03, 09, 11) and the Jingdezhen Kiln cluster. This phenomenon not only reflects the uniqueness of raw material sources or formulations of the porcelain bodies from different kilns, but also reveals that certain commonalities exist in the raw material preparation processes of some samples. It can thus be concluded that relying solely on principal component cluster analysis of major elements is insufficient to achieve accurate provenance determination for all samples. Further discussion combined with the characteristic differences between major and trace elements is still required to improve the accuracy and reliability of provenance identification.

Figure 3. Clustering analysis of main components of porcelain body.

Due to the differences in geological environments across regions, the content of Al₂O₃ and SiO₂ is generally considered an important indicator for identifying kiln sites. Analysis of Figure 4 shows that the chemical composition of celadon bodies from Jianyang Bowl Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln, and Longquan Kiln all have Al₂O₃ contents below 25%, which aligns with the typical “high silicon, low aluminum” characteristics of southern celadon [10]. Further analysis reveals that the Al₂O₃ content of the three kiln sites roughly follows the pattern: Longquan Kiln (18.45–24.87 wt%, 20.96) > Jianyang Bowl Kiln (15.64–21.73 wt%, 19.32)> Jingdezhen Kiln (17.4–20.5 wt%, 18.91). In terms of SiO₂ content, Jingdezhen Kiln (68.25–73.35 wt%, 71.79) and Jianyang Bowl Kiln (68.5–76.58 wt%, 71.62) are slightly higher than Longquan Kiln (61.72–67.76 wt%,66.07). Additionally, as shown in Figure 5, all celadon bodies from the three kiln sites exhibit the characteristics of high Rb and low Sr. Among them, Jianyang Bowl Kiln (~366 ppm, ~22 ppm) and Jingdezhen Kiln (~356 ppm, ~20 ppm) show higher similarity in Rb and Sr content, while Longquan Kiln (~573 ppm, ~48 ppm) has significantly higher Rb and Sr content than Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln. Therefore, parameters such as Al₂O₃, SiO₂, Rb, and Sr are crucial for distinguishing imitations of Longquan celadon from authentic Longquan celadon. However, the elemental differences between the imitations of Longquan celadon from these two regions are not significant, making it difficult to distinguish them in detail, thus requiring further in-depth research.

Figure 4. Scatter plot of Al₂O₃-SiO₂ in fetal body.

Figure 5. Scatter plot of Rb-Sr in fetal body.

In mineral source identification, trace elements in the porcelain body—alongside major elements—can reveal regional differences in celadon raw materials and production techniques. Rare earth elements, in particular, have garnered significant attention due to their geochemical stability. Researchers like Weigand have explicitly noted that processing treatments on mineral raw materials exert relatively minor effects on the original geochemical composition [11,12]. Therefore, this study employs rare earth elements as tracers for mineral source analysis. The experiment measured 20 trace elements and 14 rare earth element groups, with standardized processing (Standardized rare earth value = Rare earth element data of the sample/Chondrite standard values. The standard values for each element in chondrite are as follows: La = 0.367, Ce = 0.957, Pr = 0.137, Nd = 0.711, Sm = 0.231, Eu = 0.087, Gd = 0.306, Tb = 0.058, Dy = 0.381, Ho = 0.0851, Er = 0.249, Tm = 0.0356, Yb = 0.248, Lu = 0.0381) and δEu anomaly calculations (δEu = 2EuN/(SmN + GdN), where EuN, SmN, and GdN are the normalized values of the rare earth elements) applied to the rare earth data (see Table 6 and Table 7). The analysis results in Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9 demonstrate that Longquan Kiln exhibits significantly higher concentrations of the trace elements V, Zn, Ga, and Sn compared to Jingdezhen Kiln and Jianyang Bowl Kiln, revealing distinct regional characteristics. However, the trace element levels between Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln remain similar, making them indistinguishable. This indicates that trace elements can serve as primary distinguishing features between Longquan and imitation Longquan, while further refinement is needed for differentiation among imitation Longquan pieces. Subsequent rare earth element analysis (Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12 and Figure 13) shows that lead (Pb), lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), Samarium (Sm), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), and lutetium (Lu) concentrations in celadon bodies from the three kilns follow a clear hierarchy: Longquan Kiln > Jianyang Bowl Kiln > Jingdezhen Kiln. In addition, according to the analysis in Table 6, the average total amount of rare earth elements (ΣREE) in Jianyang Bowl Kiln is 202.73 ppm, while that in Jingdezhen Kiln is 67.15 ppm. The Longquan celadon ranges from 192 ppm to 717 ppm. It can be seen that the total amount of rare earth elements also shows a characteristic where the Longquan Kiln values are higher than those of Jianyang Bowl Kiln, which are higher than those of Jingdezhen Kiln. The differences in ΣREE among different kilns may be related to the different mineral raw materials used in the production of celadon. This further confirms that although the processing techniques of Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln are similar, there is a certain degree of difference in the sources of raw materials, which is an important basis for identification of their origin.

Figure 6. Box diagram of fetal V elements.

Figure 7. Box diagram of fetal Zn elements.

Figure 8. Box diagram of Ga elements in the fetus.

Figure 9. Box diagram of Sn elements in the fetus.

Figure 10. Box diagram of Pr elements in the fetal body.

Figure 11. Box diagram of Nd elements in the fetal body.

Figure 12. Box diagram of Sm elements in the fetal body.

Figure 13. Box diagram of Gd elements in the fetal body.

In the calculation of total rare earth elements, rare earths are generally classified into two categories: light rare earth elements (LREEs) and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). Elements such as La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, and Eu belong to the LREEs, while Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and Lu are classified as HREEs. Analysis of the spider web Figure 14 and Figure 15 reveals that the curves of Jianyang Bowl Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln, and Longquan Kiln all exhibit a left-to-right inclination, a characteristic sign of LREE enrichment. Further analysis shows variations in the abundance of both light and heavy rare earth elements across kilns. Jingdezhen Kiln and Jianyang Bowl Kiln demonstrate peak characteristics for Pr and Yb, while Ce and Eu show depletion, followed by an overall downward trend.

Figure 14. Rare earth element distribution map of celadon bodies in Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln.

Figure 15. Rare earth element distribution map of glaze on celadon bodies in Longquan Kiln.

The δEu value, as an anomaly of the rare earth element europium, reflects the degree of separation of rare earth elements and serves as a crucial indicator in their characteristic analysis. Calculations show that the δEu values for Jingdezhen Kiln range from 0.33 to 0.69 with an average of 0.57; Longquan Kiln ranges from 0.19 to 0.57, averaging 0.36; while Jianyang Bowl Kiln ranges from 0.15 to 0.37, averaging 0.28. All celadon bodies from these three kilns exhibit δEu values below 1, indicating negative loss states. To ensure the accuracy of the data, we also conducted a non-parametric test using δEu as the variable and found that it exhibits significant differences, which is consistent with the research results. The severity of δEu loss varies across kilns: Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Longquan Kiln show significant loss (strong loss type), while Jingdezhen Kiln demonstrates moderate loss. The overall loss magnitude follows a trend where Jianyang Bowl Kiln > Longquan Kiln > Jingdezhen Kiln. This phenomenon commonly occurs in granite or may be influenced by mafic feldspar crystal absorption. Such occurrences in granite are relatively common, likely related to mafic feldspar’s absorptive effects. Combined with the negative anomalies of cerium (Ce) elements in each kiln, it can be inferred that this may relate to granite weathering, prolonged exposure to redox environments, and the loss of Ce-rich heavy minerals during washing processes. Therefore, it can be deduced that the source rocks used in these three kilns did not originate from the same region, and the rare earth element analysis results serve as key evidence for distinguishing their specific differences.

3.2. Analysis and Discussion on the Composition Characteristics of Porcelain Enamel

The Lab color space is a device-independent color model established based on human visual characteristics. It was proposed by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) in 1976 and encompasses three dimensions: lightness (L*) and chromaticity (a*, b*). Specifically, L*, with a range of 0–100, represents the grayscale gradient from black to white. The a* axis governs the tendency toward red or green, while the b* axis modulates the hue between yellow and blue [13]. As shown in Table 2, the a* and b* values of Longquan Kiln glazes exhibit significant variations, with notable differences in coloration that can be broadly categorized into dark (yellow-green) and light (blue-green) tones. Both Jingdezhen Kiln and Jianyang Bowl Kiln display negative a* values, characteristic of celadon. Notably, the average a* value for Jianyang Bowl Kiln (−2.89) is higher than that of Jingdezhen Kiln (−6.65), while the b* value shows Jingdezhen Kiln (11.91) surpassing Jianyang Bowl Kiln (10.58). Consequently, Jingdezhen glazes generally exhibit a bluish-green hue, similar to Longquan’s light blue-green glaze, whereas Jianyang Bowl Kiln glazes predominantly display a yellow-green tone akin to Longquan’s deep yellow-green glaze. Both regions’ imitations of Longquan celadon share similar glaze coloration, making visual differences between the three types difficult to discern. Therefore, further analysis of the glaze composition is necessary to clarify distinctions.

The coloration of porcelain glaze is influenced by multiple factors and is primarily correlated with coloring elements [14]. As can be seen from Figure 16 and Figure 17, higher contents generally correspond to lower a* and b* values. The contents of the glazes from all three kilns, ranging approximately from 1% to 2%, conform to the coloration characteristics of celadon. In terms of the average content, Jianyang Bowl Kiln is higher than Jingdezhen Kiln, which in turn is higher than Longquan Kiln.

Figure 16. Scatter plot of, a* and b* for porcelain glaze.

Figure 17. Histogram of siderophile elements in porcelain glaze.

Furthermore, Ni, Cr, Co, Mn, V, and Sc among trace elements are iron-loving elements that act as black alloying elements and possess certain color-producing capabilities. However, the total content of some of these iron-loving elements in Jingdezhen Kiln is higher than that in both Longquan Kiln and Jianyang Bowl Kiln, which contradicts the existing coloration results. This indicates that iron is the dominant coloring element in celadon glaze coloration, while the influence of iron-loving elements is relatively minor.

In different regions and kilns, the preparation of porcelain glaze not only uses porcelain clay as the base material but also adds various fluxes to promote the formation of glassy glaze layers [15]. To further investigate the characteristics of the three kilns’ glazes, this study conducted a detailed analysis of glaze composition. According to the data in Table 4 and Table 9 all glazes from the three kilns exhibited a high CaO content. Additionally, as shown in Figure 18, the Mn and P contents were at least two orders of magnitude higher than those of the porcelain body, demonstrating a positive correlation. This may be related to the artificial addition of glaze ash as a flux. Among the samples, most from Jianyang Bowl Kiln showed Mn and P contents similar to Longquan Kiln, with significant fluctuations in distribution ranges; while a small portion resembled Jingdezhen Kiln. Regarding the Mn-P ratio, although Longquan Kiln (approximately 1.25), Jianyang Bowl Kiln (approximately 1.09), and Jingdezhen Kiln (approximately 0.97) all approached 1, there were subtle differences. This suggests that all three kilns likely used plant ash as the primary flux in glaze preparation. Furthermore, as illustrated in Figure 19, the Rb-Sr content distribution in Jingdezhen Kiln glazes mirrored that of the porcelain body, showing high Rb and low Sr characteristics; Longquan Kiln exhibited the opposite pattern with high Sr and low Rb; while Jianyang Bowl Kiln samples (WY-01,02,05,07,10) displayed both high Rb and low Sr profiles. This phenomenon further indicates that Jianyang Bowl Kiln may have adopted the same mineral sources for flux preparation as Longquan and Jingdezhen Kilns, or intentionally used flux formulations with similar proportions to those of Longquan and Jingdezhen Kilns.

Figure 18. Scatter plot of Mn-P content in fetal enamel.

Figure 19. Scatter plot of Rb-Sr content in fetal enamel.

Further analysis of rare earth element data in porcelain glazes reveals that the total characteristics of rare earth elements (REEs) align with the porcelain body composition, as shown in Figure 20. The distribution pattern remains consistent—Jingdezhen Kiln < Jianyang Bowl Kiln < Longquan Kiln—with all exhibiting right-skewed LREE enrichment curves that mirror the porcelain body’s development. Notably, the δCe values in glazes from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln are approximately 0.68, differing significantly from Longquan Kiln’s δCe (mean 0.96). This indicates that the raw material composition and processing techniques in glaze production for Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln are more similar. Additionally, as illustrated in Figure 21 and Figure 22, significant variations exist in trace elements such as Sc, V, and Zr. These differences in trace element profiles can serve as crucial indicators for determining the origin of porcelain glazes.

Figure 20. Spider web diagram of rare earth elements in celadon glaze of Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln.

Figure 21. Scatter plot of Sc-V content in porcelain glaze.

Figure 22. Scatter plot of Zr-Nb content in fetal glaze.

4. Conclusions

(1)

Research indicates that celadon from three kiln sites—Jianyang Bowl Kiln, Jingdezhen Kiln, and Longquan Kiln—shares similar morphological features. All exhibit the characteristic composition of “high silicon and low aluminum” and “high Rb and low Sr” in their ceramic bodies. However, imitations of Longquan celadon from Jingdezhen Kiln and Jianyang Bowl Kiln demonstrate a lower Al₂O₃ content than authentic Longquan pieces, while SiO₂ levels are marginally higher. Moreover, trace elements including Rb, Sr, V, Zn, Ga, and Sn are significantly depleted in these imitations. These primary trace element variations in ceramic bodies provide a preliminary basis for distinguishing Longquan celadon imitations from authentic Longquan celadon.

(2)

The geochemical analysis of rare earth elements (e.g., Pb, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, and Lu) and δEu anomalies effectively distinguishes the raw material sources of the three kilns. Notably, both individual rare earth element concentrations and total rare earth content show a distinct hierarchy: Longquan Kiln> Jianyang Bowl Kiln> Jingdezhen Kiln. Although all three kilns exhibit negative Eu depletion, the severity of depletion varies in gradient order (Jingdezhen Kiln <Longquan Kiln <Jianyang Bowl Kiln), suggesting their parent rocks may be light rare earth-enriched granites. However, differences in specific mineralization environments or weathering and washing processes provide reliable geochemical evidence for regional differentiation.

(3)

The imitations of Longquan celadon from Jianyang Bowl Kil and Jingdezhen Kiln, though sharing similar glaze colors with the deep yellow-green and light blue-green glazes of Longquan Kiln, exhibit distinct trace element profiles in their glaze materials. Key indicators such as Mn-P, Rb-Sr, δCe values, and total ΣREE content clearly reveal differences in flux formulations and raw material sources among these celadon varieties. Thus, trace rare earth elements in the glaze serve as a critical basis for identifying their respective origins.

This study not only delves into the chemical composition differences between Longquan celadon imitations from Jianyang Bowl Kiln and Jingdezhen Kiln, as well as Longquan celadon itself, but also further validates the significant advantages of laser ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) in analyzing these distinctions. In subsequent research, we will systematically compare the specific sources of raw materials and manufacturing process variations among these imitations, clarifying the differences in production techniques between Fujian and Jingdezhen’s Longquan celadon imitations and authentic Longquan celadon. This will provide more robust scientific evidence for identifying Longquan celadon and its imitations. Additionally, we will explore the exchanges and differences in production technologies among these celadon varieties, offering theoretical support for the dissemination of ceramic cultural techniques.