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Article

Exploring Continental and Submerged Paleolandscapes at the Pre-Neolithic Site of Ouriakos, Lemnos Island, Northeastern Aegean, Greece

by
Myrsini Gkouma
1,2,*,
Panagiotis Karkanas
1,
Olga Koukousioura
3,
George Syrides
3,
Areti Chalkioti
4,
Evangelos Tsakalos
5,
Maria Ntinou
6 and
Nikos Efstratiou
6
1
Malcolm H. Wiener Laboratory for Archaeological Science, The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 10676 Athens, Greece
2
Science and Technology in Archaeology and Culture Research Center, The Cyprus Institute, 2121 Nicosia, Cyprus
3
School of Geology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
4
Independent Researcher, 2 Chatziargirou Str., 63080 Nea Kallikrateia, Greece
5
Laboratory of Luminescence Dating, Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, National Centre for Scientific Research, NCSR Demokritos, Aghia Paraskevi, 15310 Athens, Greece
6
School of History and Archeology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Quaternary 2025, 8(3), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030042 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 26 April 2025 / Revised: 17 July 2025 / Accepted: 25 July 2025 / Published: 1 August 2025
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Abstract

Recent archaeological discoveries across the Aegean, Cyprus, and western Anatolia have renewed interest in pre-Neolithic seafaring and early island colonization. However, the environmental contexts that support such early coastal occupations remain poorly understood, largely due to the submergence of Pleistocene shorelines following post-glacial sea-level rise. This study addresses this gap through an integrated geoarchaeological investigation of the pre-Neolithic site of Ouriakos on Lemnos Island, northeastern Aegean (Greece), dated to the mid-11th millennium BCE. By reconstructing both the terrestrial and submerged paleolandscapes of the site, we examine ecological conditions, resource availability, and sedimentary processes that shaped human activity and site preservation. Employing a multiscale methodological approach—combining bathymetric survey, geomorphological mapping, soil micromorphology, geochemical analysis, and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating—we present a comprehensive framework for identifying and interpreting early coastal settlements. Stratigraphic evidence reveals phases of fluvial, aeolian, and colluvial deposition associated with an alternating coastline. The core findings reveal that Ouriakos was established during a phase of environmental stability marked by paleosol development, indicating sustained human presence. By bridging terrestrial and marine data, this research contributes significantly to the understanding of human coastal mobility during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition.

1. Introduction

Recent discoveries of Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic sites on the Aegean islands, Cyprus, and western Anatolia have intensified interest in pre-Neolithic seafaring and island habitation [1,2,3,4]. Archaeological evidence from Cyprus [5], Crete [6,7], Lemnos [8,9,10,11], Imbros [12,13,14], Kythnos [4,15], Youra [4,16,17], Naxos [4,18,19], Ikaria [4,20], Chalki [4], and Sikinos [4,21] demonstrates that maritime mobility and island colonization predate the Neolithic period.
To date, there is limited knowledge regarding the landforms and resources that attracted the first pre-Neolithic hunter–gatherers to the Aegean islands. This is primarily due to the rise in sea levels following the Last Glacial Maximum [22], which resulted in the flooding of coastal plains and the subsequent loss of substantial areas of land that were available to early prehistoric populations [23,24,25,26]. The current data on sea-level changes and geomorphological alterations are not sufficiently detailed to provide more than an approximate understanding of the area. This highlights the necessity of re-evaluating our methods for exploring prehistoric settlements on these islands. It is now clear that the search for archaeological evidence documenting the early colonization of the Aegean islands during the 12th to 10th millennia BCE heavily relies on the reconstruction of continental and marine landscapes [23,24,25,26]. These reconstructions will help us identify temporal human settlements, such as campsites.
This paper aims to reconstruct the terrestrial and submerged paleolandscapes of Ouriakos and investigate the formation processes of its archaeological deposits. Ouriakos is a pre-Neolithic hunting–gathering campsite situated on the southeastern coast of the island of Lemnos in the northeastern Aegean (Greece). The site is dated to approximately the middle of the 11th millennium BCE [8,9,10,11]. The significance of Ouriakos lies in the rarity of pre-Neolithic campsites in the Aegean region; its discovery in 2006 fundamentally altered our archaeological understanding of early occupation in the eastern Mediterranean [8,9,10,11].
This study places particular emphasis on understanding the site formation processes at Ouriakos to evaluate the availability and spatial distribution of environmental resources during the period of occupation. By reconstructing the paleolandscape, we assessed the ecological conditions that may have rendered the location favorable to early hunter–gatherer groups. Furthermore, we examine the sedimentary and post-depositional processes that contributed to the preservation of the archaeological record, thereby enriching our understanding of human–environment interactions at the site.
Beyond its regional importance, this study represents a globally significant contribution to the archaeology of early coastal societies. The integration of submerged and terrestrial data within a unified geoarchaeological framework addresses one of the central challenges in prehistoric research: the detection and interpretation of sites that were once located along coastlines now lost to sea-level rise. By applying a multiscale methodology—including bathymetric survey, geomorphological analysis, soil micromorphology, geochemical profiling, and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating—we establish a transferable approach for investigating submerged paleolandscapes and ephemeral occupation sites. This approach advances international archaeological practice by offering new tools to explore early human mobility and coastal adaptation in response to climate-driven environmental changes during the Pleistocene–Holocene transition.

2. The Site

2.1. Archaeological Setting

Ouriakos is located on the SE coast of the island of Lemnos in the North Aegean Sea (Figure 1). The site has recently produced the first evidence for hunters and gatherers on the island during the Younger Dryas (ca. 10,800–9600 cal BCE) [10]. Tens of thousands of ed pieces of chipped stone tools have been recovered at the site, which covers an area of at least 1500 square meters. The finds date to the Epipaleolithic, at the 11th mill BCE (Final Paleolithic). A charred animal bone provided the first absolute date for the site [10] [10,390 ± 45 BP/10,437–10,198 BCE (1σ), 10,563–10,121 BCE (2σ)]. The full extent of the site is known only approximately, since aeolian sands (locally up to 1.5 m thick) formed in the recent Holocene place limitations on the visibility of the site. The archaeological investigation of Ouriakos, which is still in progress, includes both the systematic collection of the material on the surface and the opening of several excavation trenches down to the bedrock, where the finds are well stratified.

2.2. Geological Setting

Lemnos Island lies within the tectonically active back-arc zone of the North Aegean, influenced by the western extension of the North Anatolian Fault Zone (NAFZ), which imposes a transtensional regime across the region [28,29]. Although regional Holocene sea-level trends are primarily driven by glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment, tectonics have played a secondary but locally significant role in modifying relative sea levels, sedimentation patterns, and landscape stability. Historical seismic events—notably, the 330 BCE and 1893 CE earthquakes—likely contributed to localized subsidence in low-lying coastal areas, enhancing the formation and preservation of lagoonal environments. These tectonic processes, in combination with sedimentary dynamics, have influenced the morpho-sedimentary evolution of the region, including the development of embayments, sediment traps, and features such as beachrock and submerged archaeological remains.
The geological sequence at Ouriakos begins with the Upper Eocene–Lower Oligocene flysch, which forms the structural basement of the area [27] (Figure 1 and Figure 2). This unit is exposed along coastal margins and incised stream valleys and consists of alternating mudstones and fine- to medium-grained sandstones rich in quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragments, all bound by a calcitic matrix. In tectonically active zones, secondary calcite is common. Overlying this basement are Pleistocene calcarenites, comprising well-cemented, porous marine sandstones with ripple and cross bedding and abundant marine bioclasts such as foraminifera and oolites. These features reflect deposition in a shallow marine environment. The calcarenites extend from the present sea level up to about 60 m in elevation and dip gently toward the modern shoreline. The most recent deposits are Holocene in age, consisting of undifferentiated alluvial, coastal, and aeolian sediments that stretch roughly 2.5 km northwest of the site. Alluvial layers include clays, loams, and coarse sediments derived from local sedimentary and volcanic lithologies. Coastal deposits are dominated by sands and localized gravels, while the aeolian sediments, reworked from Pleistocene sources, form surface layers up to 1.5 m thick.

3. Materials and Methods

The methodology employed includes bathymetric survey, geological and geomorphological mapping, soil micromorphology, geochemistry, and Optical Luminescence (OL) dating.

3.1. Bathymetric Study

In this project, our objective was to refine previous coastal reconstructions of the maritime area between Lemnos and the northwestern Anatolian coastline [8] using newly available bathymetric data. At the local scale, we aimed to produce a high-resolution DTM of the southeastern part of Lemnos that seamlessly integrates both terrestrial and marine topography, encompassing the coastal zone in front of the Ouriakos site.
To reconstruct submerged paleolandscapes, we integrated high-resolution terrestrial and marine datasets. These included Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) derived from SRTM data and a high-resolution DTM produced through manual digitization of contour lines (provided by the Hellenic Military Geographical Service). Marine elevation data were sourced from EMODnet bathymetric grids [30] and side-scan sonar data provided by the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research. Additional georeferenced topographic maps and bathymetric contours from the Hellenic Navy Hydrographic Service further enriched the dataset. Using these combined sources, we generated both high- and low-resolution DTMs to model paleocoastlines corresponding to sea-level stands at −65 m and −42 m, representing key phases of the Late Glacial and Early Holocene.

3.2. Geological and Geomorphological Mapping

Fieldwork followed the standard methodology of an on-site visit, identification, description, and recording of all data and observations. This study reassessed the geological formations of the study area through an intensive geological/geomorphological survey, and the results of the updated map are presented in Section 4.2. As a base map of field observations, a 1:5000 topographic map was used, provided by the Hellenic Military Service, along with an orthophoto mosaic model constructed in the framework of this project. Along with the geomorphological mapping, sampling for laboratory analysis was carried out as follows.

3.3. Soil Micromorphology

Soil micromorphological analysis was based on 11 undisturbed sediment blocks (OUR1–OUR11) collected from both excavation trenches (RK2 and RK3) and natural stream profiles (mc-URK1 to mc-URK4) (Figure 3). Samples were taken from key locations including trench areas, stream banks near the outlet to the sea, calcarenite bedrock, and underlying flysch formations (Figure 2; for the detailed sampling locations, refer to Section 4.3).
The samples were collected to comprehensively cover the entire stratigraphic sequence. Processing of the samples was carried out at the M.H. Wiener Laboratory for Archaeological Science, ASCSA, while the thin sections were prepared at Quality Thin Sections in Tucson, Arizona. The thin sections were subsequently examined under a polarized microscope with magnifications ranging from 12.5× to 400×. A total of 47 thin sections were analyzed. The description of thin sections was based on standard guidelines [31,32,33].

3.4. Geochemistry

Twenty-four bulk samples for geochemical analysis were extracted from mc-URK 1. A Bruker TRACER III SD portable X-ray fluorescence spectroscope (Bruker Corporation (Bruker AXS/Bruker Nano Analytics, Madison, WI, USA) was used for geochemical analysis. The elemental analysis included the major oxides (SiO2, Fe2O3, CaO, TiO2, and MnO) and the trace elements (Rb, Sr, and Zr). For paleoenvironmental interpretation, ratios of individual elements were additionally used.

3.5. Luminescence Dating

Four sediment samples from the mc-URK1 profile (associated with samples OUR9–OUR11; see Section 4.3) were analyzed for optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating at the Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, NCSR “Demokritos” (Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3). Quartz and feldspar grains were chemically treated using standard laboratory procedures [34] to remove carbonates, organics, and alpha-irradiated outer layers. Fine quartz grains (4–11 μm) were further isolated using fluorosilicic and hydrochloric acid according to Stokes’ law.
Measurements were performed using a Risø TL-DA-20 reader (DTU Physics (Risø Radiation Instruments), Technical University of Denmark) with a 90Sr/90Y β source. Initial attempts using quartz grains and the SAR protocol [35] revealed unstable signals and high scatter in DE values. To address this, a post-infrared infrared stimulated luminescence (pIRIRSL) protocol was applied to feldspar grains, offering stronger and more stable luminescence signals [36,37,38,39]. The modified protocol used IRSL at 50 °C, followed by pIRIRSL at 160 °C, with detection in the 320–460 nm range using a BG39/Corning 7–59 filter pack.
Dose recovery tests confirmed protocol reliability, with results within 2σ (0.9–1.1), recycling ratios within 5% of unity, and recuperation below 3%. To assess signal stability, we calculated the g value [40,41] for the pIRIR160 signal using delayed stimulation of pre-bleached aliquots. The average g value was −0.18 ± 0.02%, indicating negligible fading under the applied protocol. Representative decay and dose-response curves show typical feldspar behavior, with rapid signal decay in the initial seconds of stimulation.

4. Results

4.1. Bathymetric Study–Paleocoastline Reconstruction

During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Lemnos formed the westernmost extension of the Anatolian mainland. As the relative sea level (RSL) rose to approximately –100 m—likely around the onset of the Bølling–Allerød interstadial—Lemnos remained connected to the mainland (Figure 4), though it became separated from Agios Efstratios by a narrow channel roughly 2 km wide. At the center of the intervening basin, a lake likely formed during the Bølling–Allerød period as sea level approached −80 m. This lake gradually expanded, eventually giving rise to a narrow marine strait that dividedthe connection between the Asia Minor coast and a long, narrow island consisting of what are now Lemnos and Imbros. This transformation was completed prior to the onset of the Younger Dryas cold episode [8]. During the Younger Dryas (ca. 12,800–11,600 BP), Lemnos remained connected to Imbros by a diminishing land bridge. Although the rate of sea-level rise slowed during this period, sea levels continued to rise, reaching approximately −65 m (Figure 5). From ca. 10,000 BP (when sea level stood at around −40 m) to 8200 BP (when it reached −20 m), sea-level rise accelerated again, continuing the progressive transformation of the northeastern Aegean’s paleogeography.

4.2. Geological and Geomorphological Setting

The geological observations and interpretations presented here are based on original fieldwork conducted during this study, complemented by prior geological mapping [27].
At the current location of the archaeological site of Ouriakos, the substrate comprises Upper Eocene–Lower Oligocene flysch formations (Figure 2). Layers of bedded, cross-bedded, and ripple-laminated calcarenite were deposited unconformably during the Pleistocene on the already eroded/disintegrated surface of the flysch (Figure 2 and Figure 6). Following the morphology of the underlying bedrock, the calcarenite forms a low and smooth surface sloping towards the sea.
The rippled and horizontally laminated structure of the calcarenite (Figure 2) indicates that it was formed in a shallow marine to coastal environment, which, after sea-level regression, developed into an elongated coastal terrace. The base of the calcarenite likely represents a former transgressive surface.
Currently, the terrace lies at ~8 m above sea level and gently slopes southeastward due to surface erosion, terminating at a height of ~4 m at the coastal front (Figure 6). After the deposition of calcarenite, extensive aeolian sands accumulated across the broader area. These sands appear as ash-yellow to light-brown, brick-colored, well-sorted, cohesive quartz sands with minor silt content, which have locally lithified into aeolianites. They cover a wide range from the low-lying plain to hilly relief areas.
These sedimentary formations influenced the flow of the Ouriakos stream. In its lower course, the stream has incised a channel up to 150 m inland. At this point, a knickpoint (Figure 2B and Figure 6) is formed, where a resistant horizontal layer of calcarenite halts further incision and results in an abrupt change in channel gradient. Upstream, the streambed has eroded into aeolianites, exposing layers of bedrock on its banks (Figure 2A). Bed erosion ceases at the upper surface of the calcarenite layer, which is exposed over a ~30 m stretch along the channel axis.
The marine terrace is currently visible in the coastal zone, sloping landward. It is partially covered by a widespread veneer of sand dunes that extend across both the coastal bench and the more elevated inland areas. Along the northern flank of the stream, remnants of cemented aeolianite formations are exposed (Figure 6).
The incision of the Ouriakos stream represents the most prominent modification of the local topography. Paired fluvial terraces have developed on either side of the channel, preserving earlier stages of the stream’s evolution. These terraces are gently sloping, flat-surfaced landforms. At the base of the valley—particularly near the lower course of the stream—wetland environments have formed in depressions along the floodplain margins. The 3D DTM reconstruction of the −65 m paleocoastline (Figure 4) suggests that the ancient Ouriakos drainage system extended further south, with the current landscape preserving a complex interplay of inherited and active landform elements.

4.3. Stratigraphic Sequence of the Site

Having described the landforms of the broader region, this section focuses on the description of stratigraphic units at the site of Ouriakos (Table 4):
Unit 1 is found in sample OUR6 (Figure 2B and Figure 3) and is described as yellowish–green mudstone representing the weathered flysch bedrock. Microscopically, this unit is recorded as yellowish–brown, clayey sand cemented in a calcareous matrix, with dispersed fine-grained aggregates with redoximorphic features, vughs and voids as indications of exposure, weathering, bioturbation, and clay illuviations (Figure 7a).
Units 2 and 3 (samples OU7 and OUR8) (Figure 2C and Figure 3) are macroscopically described as calcarenites with laminations of fine-, medium-, and coarse-grained sands; superimposed climbing ripples; cross-bedded laminations; and alternations of medium- and coarse-grained sands. Microscopically, oolites, peloids, foraminifera, and shells are recorded in coarse (1 mm) (Unit 2) and fine laminations of finer material (0.5 mm) cemented with micritic calcite (Unit 3) (Figure 7b).
Unit 4 (samples OUR 4 and OUR11 (Figure 3) is described macroscopically as coarse silty sands underlying Unit 5 in a diffuse boundary. It contains large calcarenite fragments that were eroded from the calcarenite substrate. Microscopically, the sediments are composed of well sorted subrounded fine sand and silt with coarse sand aggregates, including calcarenite fragments and a few calcareous aggregates. Fe/Mn staining is recorded (Figure 7c).
Unit 5 is described macroscopically as yellowish sandy silt (samples OUR3 and OUR10 (Figure 2, Figure 8 and Figure 9)) with strong redoximorphic features and intercalating bluish tongues. Under the microscope, the unit is composed of silty clay loam in a vughy microstructure with sand grains including quartz, sandstone, few rounded calcareous nodules, and crystallitic infillings. A few shell fragments are also present. Locally (sample OUR10 (Figure 3), redoximorphic features are more abundant, indicating water-table fluctuation (Figure 7d).
Unit 6 is recorded at both the south and north banks of the stream from the outlet to the sea to the knickpoint (Figure 6 and Figure 8) in samples OUR1 to 3 and OUR9 (Figure 3). It is macroscopically described as a dark, clay-rich sediment with a columnar–blocky structure. Under the microscope, it includes decalcified sandy loams to sandy silt loams with cross-striated to speckled birefringent (b/f) fabric. The following pedogenetic features are identified: a blocky/columnar microstructure, striated clay, redoximorphic features in the form of organic and Fe/Mn impregnations, calcareous infillings, and bioturbation features (6a) (Figure 7e). In trench RK2, there is sand infiltration from Unit 7, fragments of calcarenite, and calcareous infillings (Unit 6b). In the south area, in trench RK3, lithic artifacts are recorded macroscopically on top of subunit (6c). This subunit has the same characteristics as 6b, with extensive calcareous infillings, calcarenite fragments, and calcite-impregnated root tissues (queras), indicating extensive exposure [42,43]. In both subunits, the b/f fabric is crystallitic.
Unit 7 is identified on the south and north banks of the stream in samples OUR1, 5, and 9 (Figure 3) and is described in the field as a firm silty sand layer with abundant calcareous concretions. Microscopically, it includes moderately sorted loamy sands in a granular microstructure and many voids (Figure 7f,g). Birefringence fabric is cross-striated to crystallitic with subrounded to subangular quartz, quartzite, calcite, and olivine. Calcareous and crystallitic coatings are present, along with impregnation features. This unit overlies Unit 6 in an undulating, irregular boundary on the south bank, while it is only locally observed on the north bank (Figure 8).
Unit 8 (sample OUR2 (Figure 3) directly overlies Unit 6 on the north bank of the stream, while on the south bank, Unit 7 intercalates between Units 6 and 8. Unit 8a includes laminated, moderately cemented, well sorted sands. It is weathered into Unit 8b, which is described in the field as loose silty sands and microscopically includes moderately sorted quartz, sandstone (aeolianite), calcarenite, and foraminifera (Figure 7h).

4.4. Geochemistry

Elemental analysis of the sequence of MC-URK1 is described as follows (Figure 10):
Ca is found in moderate concentrations in sedimentological Units 4–6, with a transient sharp drop in the upper part of sedimentological Unit 6 and a significant increase in Units 7 and 8. This trend is related to the presence of coarse-grained sediments and calcitic aggregates due to the erosion of calcarenite. Strontium (Sr) and silicon (Si) follow the increasing trend of Ca and are probably associated with the presence of the weathered bioclasts of calcarenite. Both elements can be of biogenic origin [44,45].
Zr, Rb, and Ti show increased values in Units 4–6, and at the end of Unit 6, they follow a decreasing trend inverse to that of Ca and Sr; these elements are generally associated with the presence of clay minerals [46,47] and are often used as indicators of sediment input [48,49] related to increased humidity.
Fe and Mn are also associated with the presence of clay minerals and follow a trend similar to that of Zr, Rb, and Ti, decreasing after Unit 6. Manganese (Mn) is a redox-sensitive element [50], and iron (Fe) is one of the most common elements often associated with local markers such as Ti.
The ratio of Fe/Mn increases in Units 6 and 8, i.e., the two units characterized by the longest subaerial exposure of the sediments. The Mn/Fe ratio can be used to reconstruct the redox index [51]. In anoxic waters, Mn is more stable in the water column than Fe2+. Therefore, Mn/Fe ratios of anoxic sediments remain low. In an acidic water column, Mn/Fe is high, with both Mn and Fe precipitating.
Rb/Sr shows a peak at the beginning of Unit 7. As described above, the increased values of this ratio can be a result of increased humidity. This trend is confirmed by the presence of colluvial deposits, while the overlying decrease in Rb/Sr is associated with intense aeolian activity. The increase in Si in the same unit seems to demonstrate the same environmental conditions. The Rb/Sr ratio is usually considered a weathering indicator, demonstrating the relative humidity during the deposition of the sediment [48]. A humid climate promotes weathering and Rb input and increases chemical weathering of carbonate rocks, leaching Sr from sediments [51]. Conversely, a dry climate favors Sr deposition in sediments due to increased erosion. As a result, high Rb/Sr values tend to indicate a wetter climate, while low values indicate a drier climate. However, other processes (e.g., sedimentation) can affect the ratio. Finer sediments with a higher mica-rich clay fraction often have higher Rb/Sr values, as Rb is often associated with clay minerals.

4.5. Luminescence Dating

Equivalent dose (DE) values for coarse-grained feldspar were used to calculate pIRIRSL ages by dividing the measured DE accumulated since the last bleaching event by the corresponding environmental dose rate. The resulting age estimates are presented in Table 5. Numerous statistical approaches have been proposed to enhance the reliability of DE estimation, particularly in cases involving partial bleaching or heterogeneous dose distributions [52,53].
In the present study, both the Central Age Model (CAM) and the Minimum Age Model (MAM), as described by [54], were applied to the DE values. The equivalent dose distributions displayed varying degrees of scatter, with overdispersion values ranging from 2.7% to 17%. Given the observed dispersion, the MAM-derived DE values are considered to provide more representative age estimates for the analyzed samples.
The Central Age Model (CAM) estimates a weighted mean equivalent dose while accounting for additional scatter arising from measurement uncertainties [42]. In contrast, the Minimum Age Model (MAM) is more suitable for incompletely bleached samples, as it identifies the most likely burial dose by isolating the well-bleached portion of the dose distribution. This is achieved by fitting a truncated normal distribution to the log-transformed DE values. The statistical width of this minimum-dose population is informed by both the individual measurement uncertainties and the observed overdispersion within the dataset.

5. Integrated Synthesis of Results

The geoarchaeological investigation at the pre-Neolithic site of Ouriakos reveals a multi-phase environmental history shaped by marine transgressions, fluvial activity, aeolian processes, and episodic human occupation, all unfolding against the backdrop of Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene climatic change.

5.1. Paleogeographic Marine and Terrestrial Setting

Bathymetric and geomorphological data reveal that during the Late Glacial Maximum and the Younger Dryas, a broad coastal plain extended up to two kilometers south of the present shoreline, connecting Lemnos to the Anatolian mainland. High-resolution DTM reconstructions show that this area comprised a mosaic of emergent landforms, including marine terraces, stream channels, and low-lying basins.
The Ouriakos site is situated on a gently seaward-sloping Pleistocene marine terrace composed of horizontally bedded and ripple-laminated calcarenites overlying weathered Eocene–Oligocene flysch. These calcarenites, rich in marine bioclasts, reflect shallow marine deposition during a warm interstadial. Aeolian sands, locally cemented into aeolianites, blanket the terrace and adjacent elevated areas.
The Ouriakos stream incised into these formations, forming a shallow fluvial valley and a distinct knickpoint where erosion is halted by a resistant calcarenite layer. Paired fluvial terraces and associated wetland deposits along the stream valley illustrate successive incision and sedimentation phases shaped by fluctuating sea levels and climatic shifts. Together, the bathymetric reconstructions and geomorphological evidence define a dynamic landscape that preserved key elements of the region’s late Pleistocene–early Holocene evolution.

5.2. The Sedimentary Sequence

The sedimentary sequence reflects a dynamic environmental history marked by alternating phases of marine transgression, fluvial activity, soil formation, and aeolian sedimentation. The integration of micromorphology, geochemistry, and luminescence dating provides a coherent framework for interpreting the depositional and post-depositional processes that shaped the archaeological context.
At the base of the sequence, Unit 1 represents the deeply weathered Eocene–Oligocene flysch bedrock (Figure 2 and Figure 7). Composed of massive yellow–green mudstone, this unit exhibits clear evidence of subaerial exposure, including bioturbation channels, elongated vughs, and illuvial clay coatings, all indicative of prolonged pedogenic weathering prior to the deposition of overlying units.
Overlying the flysch are Units 2–3 (Figure 2 and Figure 7), comprising a horizontally bedded to ripple-laminated calcarenite that forms a prominent coastal terrace. These deposits are rich in marine bioclasts such as oolites, foraminifera, and shell fragments and are micromorphologically characterized by well-sorted peloidal grains and quartz cemented in a micritic matrix. The calcarenite was deposited in a shallow marine to nearshore environment during a warm interstadial of the Pleistocene. This lithified unit strongly influenced later geomorphological development, acting as a structural boundary for fluvial incision and sediment accumulation.
Above this, Unit 4 consists of coarse, silty sands containing eroded calcarenite fragments (Figure 2, Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9). Micromorphological analysis reveals well-sorted subrounded grains with localized oxidized features and scattered calcareous aggregates. Geochemical data from this level show elevated concentrations of titanium, iron, manganese, and rubidium, suggesting a fluvial depositional regime with significant sediment influx. OSL dating indicates ages of 25–27 ka in this horizon, which are interpreted as inherited signals predating the Younger Dryas.
Unit 5 records the development of a low-energy, seasonally wet depositional environment (Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9). Stratigraphically characterized by clay-rich alluvial deposits with strong redoximorphic mottling and bluish tongues, this unit is further defined by a vughy microstructure with iron–manganese coatings and shell fragments. The geochemical signature includes high levels of Fe, Mn, Ti, and Rb, along with elevated Fe/Mn and Rb/Sr ratios—consistent with frequent waterlogging, anoxic conditions, and clay-rich sedimentation in a wetland setting at the back of the coastal plain.
Above this alluvial complex lies Unit 6 (Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9), the key cultural horizon of the sequence. This unit comprises dark-gray, compact, clayey sands with a columnar to blocky microstructure. Micromorphological features include decalcified sandy loams, cross-striated clays, Fe/Mn coatings, bioturbation, and the presence of calcified root channels (queras), indicating a phase of surface stability and weak pedogenesis. Geochemically, this unit shows marked declines in Ca and Sr and peaks in the Rb/Sr and Fe/Mn ratios, suggesting intense chemical weathering and redox oscillation under humid but variable conditions. Importantly, OSL dating of feldspar((~11.85 ± 0.86 ka cal BP ), securely places the formation of the paleosol within the Younger Dryas climatic episode. This horizon contains microlithic tools and burnt bone, associating human activity with a stable, exposed land surface prior to Holocene sea-level rise.
The overlying Unit 7 (Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9) records a shift to a more dynamic sedimentary regime. Composed of moderately sorted silty sands with abundant calcitic nodules, this colluvial unit partially reworks the underlying paleosol. Micromorphological analysis reveals granular structures with crystallitic birefringence, quartz and olivine grains, and impregnation features, all pointing to a mix of slope-derived material and limited aeolian input. Geochemical trends show decreasing Rb/Sr and increasing Ca, Sr, and Si, consistent with renewed sediment transport; reduced weathering intensity; and a transition to drier, more unstable surface conditions during the early Holocene. Artefactual material originally resting on the paleosol surface may have been relocated within this unit through shallow post-depositional processes.
Finally, Unit 8 (Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9) reflects the full onset of aeolian processes. Laminated and well-sorted sands—in some places, cemented into aeolianite—directly overlie the older units. These deposits are rich in quartz, calcite, and bioclasts, including foraminifera and oolitic fragments. Micromorphological features show a well-developed granular microstructure and secondary calcite cementation. Geochemical data confirm the aeolian origin, with high concentrations of Ca, Sr, and Si and low Rb/Sr and Fe/Mn ratios. These indicators reflect carbonate-rich input and low chemical weathering, conditions consistent with increased aridity and the exposure of the nearby continental shelf as a sediment source. This unit blankets the archaeological horizon and significantly impacts the visibility and preservation of the site.
Together, these stratigraphic units document a long-term environmental transformation from shallow marine to fluvial and eventually aeolian conditions. The critical paleosol of Unit 6, formed during a climatic window of landscape stability in the Younger Dryas, marks the period of human presence at Ouriakos. Subsequent environmental changes led to the burial, partial reworking, and preservation of this early coastal occupation within a dynamic and evolving sedimentary landscape.

6. Discussion

The Formation of the Site

The stratigraphic sequence at Ouriakos reflects a complex interplay of sedimentary processes shaped by sea-level fluctuations, climate variability, and localized geomorphic dynamics from the Late Pleistocene through the early Holocene. The geological record begins with weathered flysch (Unit 1), forming the structural basement upon which cross-bedded calcarenites (Units 2 and 3) were deposited during a warm interglacial phase. The presence of oolitic grains and micritic cementation supports deposition in shallow marine to coastal environments, likely corresponding to the last interglacial highstand [55,56]. The formation of this elongated coastal terrace represents a stable landscape that would later undergo significant transformation.
Sea-level regression during the Last Glacial Maximum exposed the marine platform, initiating terrestrialization and fluvial incision into the calcarenite. This process resulted in the development of a shallow embayment and the deposition of coarse alluvial sediments (Unit 4). Subsequent fluvial activity during the late glacial period, intensified by post-glacial sea-level rise, led to the accumulation of fine alluvial silts and sands with redox features (Unit 5), indicative of a low-energy, seasonally waterlogged environment (Figure 11). This geomorphic setting parallels the landscape reconstruction at Agia Bay, where a similar wetland developed under analogous conditions around 14,000 cal BP [57]. At that time, the global sea level is estimated to have been approximately 135 m below present sea level [22] (Figure 4). However, older studies focusing on the Mediterranean region suggest a relative sea level (RSL) of 130–120 m below present sea level for the northeastern Aegean [58]. Lemnos was connected to Agios Efstratios, forming a large, southwest-facing peninsula [59,60,61,62]. Shortly before the Younger Dryas, an incursion of Aegean seawater into the Marmara Sea occurred [63].
During the Younger Dryas (~11.85 ± 0.86 ka cal BP), fluvial deposition ceased, likely due to a shift toward drier climatic conditions, resulting in pedogenesis and the formation of a weak paleosol (Unit 6) (Figure 8, Figure 12 and Figure 13). Micromorphological and geochemical indicators—such as decalcification, clay illuviation, root traces, and redoximorphic features—reflect prolonged exposure and soil development. The presence of microlithic tools within or directly above this paleosol indicates that human occupation coincided with this period of landscape stability, when sea level stood approximately 65 m below the present level.
Post-Younger Dryas climatic amelioration and rising sea levels triggered renewed geomorphic activity. Colluvial processes (Unit 7) redistributed sediments and archaeological material downslope, partially burying the paleosol (Figure 12). Aeolian activity also intensified, contributing to the formation of bioclastic-rich sand dunes (Unit 8a). Changes in elemental composition—including increased Ca, Sr, and Si concentrations—signal the incorporation of reworked calcarenite material and marine bioclasts. Rb/Sr ratios further suggest elevated humidity at the onset of Unit 7.
Notably, the stratigraphic differences between the northern and southern stream banks reflect local microtopographic controls on sediment deposition and preservation. On the north bank, aeolian sands directly overlie the paleosol, while on the south bank, colluvial deposits form an intermediate layer between the paleosol and the dune sands. This variability likely influenced the differential distribution of microlithic tools, which are concentrated within the colluvial sediments on the southern margin (Figure 13). The presence and distribution of aeolianites suggest that a substantial exposed sand source—now submerged—existed on the shallow offshore platform. This now-submerged landscape likely supplied clastic material during a drier, wind-dominated climatic phase in the early Holocene. The morphology and orientation of the site would have favored the accumulation of dune sands at Ouriakos, shaping both the physical and archaeological landscape.

7. Conclusions

This study presents an integrated geoarchaeological analysis of the Ouriakos site on Lemnos, combining sedimentology, micromorphology, geochemistry, and luminescence dating to reconstruct both continental and submerged paleolandscapes. The results demonstrate that the site was situated on a coastal terrace shaped by fluvial, colluvial, and aeolian processes during the Late Glacial and Early Holocene. A key finding is the formation of a paleosol during the Younger Dryas, directly associated with microlithic tools, indicating a phase of environmental stability and sustained human presence.
Chronological control through luminescence dating places human activity around 11,000 cal BP, confirming occupation during a period of pronounced climatic transition. The stratigraphic sequence captures the transformation from shallow marine calcarenites to wetland conditions and later aeolian deposits, reflecting dynamic environmental shifts that framed human activity at the site.
Paleogeographic reconstructions suggest that the ancient coastline lay nearly two kilometers south of the present shore, implying that substantial parts of the original site are now submerged. Geochemical proxies (e.g., Rb/Sr and Fe/Mn ratios) further support environmental fluctuations, indicating alternating humid and arid phases that influenced sediment deposition and preservation.
Despite post-depositional processes such as colluvial activity and sand encroachment, many artefacts remain stratigraphically associated with the Younger Dryas paleosol, affirming the integrity of the archaeological horizon. The proximity of freshwater resources, seasonal wetlands, and coastal access likely made this a favorable location for mobile forager groups during the terminal Pleistocene.
Finally, the multi-proxy methodology applied here—incorporating field geomorphology, micromorphology, geochemistry, and luminescence dating—demonstrates a robust model for investigating early coastal occupations. It provides a framework applicable to submerged or fragmentary sites across the Aegean and wider eastern Mediterranean, where sea-level rise has obscured key archaeological landscapes [64].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.G., P.K. and N.E.; methodology, M.G., P.K., O.K., G.S., A.C. and E.T.; software, M.G., A.C. and E.T.; validation, M.G., P.K., O.K., G.S., A.C., E.T. and M.N.; formal analysis, M.G., A.C. and E.T.; investigation, M.G., P.K., O.K., G.S., A.C., E.T., N.E. and M.N.; resources, M.G., P.K., O.K., G.S., A.C. and E.T.; data curation, M.G., P.K., O.K., G.S., A.C. and E.T.; writing—original draft preparation, M.G. and P.K.; writing—review and editing, M.G., P.K., O.K., G.S., A.C., E.T., M.N. and N.E.; visualization M.G., O.K., G.S., A.C. and E.T.; supervision, M.N. and N.E.; project administration N.E.; funding acquisition, N.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation of Research and Innovation (H.F.R.I) under the “First Call for H.F.R.I. Research Projects to support Faculty members and Researchers and the Procurement of High-Cost Research Equipment Grant” (Project Number: 1609, Aegean Islands: Paleoenvironment and Early Human Settlement: EGEOLAND).

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors upon request.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Geological map illustrating the study area adapted from [27], with the Ouriakos site highlighted in a black dot, including the stream of Ouriakos. (b) The island of Lemnos, with the study area marked on the southeastern coast in a red rectangle. (c) The location of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea, indicated by a red rectangle (Digital elevation model: Elevation is color-coded, transitioning from yellow-green through dark brown to white, representing progressively higher terrain).
Figure 1. (a) Geological map illustrating the study area adapted from [27], with the Ouriakos site highlighted in a black dot, including the stream of Ouriakos. (b) The island of Lemnos, with the study area marked on the southeastern coast in a red rectangle. (c) The location of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea, indicated by a red rectangle (Digital elevation model: Elevation is color-coded, transitioning from yellow-green through dark brown to white, representing progressively higher terrain).
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Figure 2. (A) Partially eroded aeolianite formations overlying alluvial deposits marked by a distinct boundary at the bank of Ouriakos stream. (B) Calcarenite formation positioned horizontally on weathered flysch at the knickpoint of Ouriakos stream, with alluvial deposits covering the sequence. (C) Sequence of bedded and cemented coarse-grain calcarenites, overlaying cross- and ripple-bedded finer calcarenites (the arrow indicates ripple beds). (D) In situ inclined flysch formations overlain by bedded calcarenites to the east of Ouriakos.
Figure 2. (A) Partially eroded aeolianite formations overlying alluvial deposits marked by a distinct boundary at the bank of Ouriakos stream. (B) Calcarenite formation positioned horizontally on weathered flysch at the knickpoint of Ouriakos stream, with alluvial deposits covering the sequence. (C) Sequence of bedded and cemented coarse-grain calcarenites, overlaying cross- and ripple-bedded finer calcarenites (the arrow indicates ripple beds). (D) In situ inclined flysch formations overlain by bedded calcarenites to the east of Ouriakos.
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Figure 3. A digital elevation model, including the sample locations (OUR1–OUR11). Flow accumulation is represented by blue lines, highlighting drainage pathways.
Figure 3. A digital elevation model, including the sample locations (OUR1–OUR11). Flow accumulation is represented by blue lines, highlighting drainage pathways.
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Figure 4. Reconstruction of the coastline of NE Aegean (A) in LGM 20 ka, −130 m; (B) 13 ka, −72.5 m; (C) 12.5 Ka, −65; and (D) 10 ka, −42.2 m. The toponyms referred to in the text are indicated with numbers: 1—Lemnos; 2—Agios Efstratios; 3—Imbros. Elevation is color-coded, with light blue tones indicating sea level and yellow-green to light brown tones representing progressively higher elevations.
Figure 4. Reconstruction of the coastline of NE Aegean (A) in LGM 20 ka, −130 m; (B) 13 ka, −72.5 m; (C) 12.5 Ka, −65; and (D) 10 ka, −42.2 m. The toponyms referred to in the text are indicated with numbers: 1—Lemnos; 2—Agios Efstratios; 3—Imbros. Elevation is color-coded, with light blue tones indicating sea level and yellow-green to light brown tones representing progressively higher elevations.
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Figure 5. Three-dimensional reconstruction of DTM of SE Lemnos with annotations of the coastline of −65 m and the stream network. The site of Ouriakos is indicated with a dot. Shore platforms are denoted with yellow dotted lines. Elevation is color-coded, with light blue tones representing sea or drainage systems, and yellow-green to light brown shades indicating progressively higher elevations across the terrain.
Figure 5. Three-dimensional reconstruction of DTM of SE Lemnos with annotations of the coastline of −65 m and the stream network. The site of Ouriakos is indicated with a dot. Shore platforms are denoted with yellow dotted lines. Elevation is color-coded, with light blue tones representing sea or drainage systems, and yellow-green to light brown shades indicating progressively higher elevations across the terrain.
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Figure 6. (a) Map of geological formations described in the text. (b) Satellite image base map where the landforms described in the text are annotated.
Figure 6. (a) Map of geological formations described in the text. (b) Satellite image base map where the landforms described in the text are annotated.
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Figure 7. (a) Photomicrograph of weathered flysch characterized by the presence of bioturbation channels and illuviation features (arrow). The cemented mudstone in the upper-right corner (bordered by the dashed line) designates the unaltered parts of the bedrock (Unit 1). (b) Photomicrograph of cemented peloidal clasts and quartz grains of the calcarenite formation (Unit 3). (c) Photomicrograph of coarse sandy sediment in a silty clay matrix (upper right part) at the transition to stagnant alluvial sediments (Unit 4). (d) Photomicrograph of diffuse iron-impregnated features in sandy sediment (Unit 5). (e) Photomicrograph of characteristic calcareous infillings that cement the matrix (Unit 6c). (f) Photomicrograph of quartz grains cemented in calcitic nodules. They float in a matrix of oriented clays (circle) (Unit 7). (g) Sand-sized grains in oriented clays (Unit 7). (h) Moderately sorted silty sands including quartz grains and calcareous peloids (Unit 8).
Figure 7. (a) Photomicrograph of weathered flysch characterized by the presence of bioturbation channels and illuviation features (arrow). The cemented mudstone in the upper-right corner (bordered by the dashed line) designates the unaltered parts of the bedrock (Unit 1). (b) Photomicrograph of cemented peloidal clasts and quartz grains of the calcarenite formation (Unit 3). (c) Photomicrograph of coarse sandy sediment in a silty clay matrix (upper right part) at the transition to stagnant alluvial sediments (Unit 4). (d) Photomicrograph of diffuse iron-impregnated features in sandy sediment (Unit 5). (e) Photomicrograph of characteristic calcareous infillings that cement the matrix (Unit 6c). (f) Photomicrograph of quartz grains cemented in calcitic nodules. They float in a matrix of oriented clays (circle) (Unit 7). (g) Sand-sized grains in oriented clays (Unit 7). (h) Moderately sorted silty sands including quartz grains and calcareous peloids (Unit 8).
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Figure 8. (A) Illustrations of the stratigraphic sequences accompanied by detailed descriptions of the units (1–8) mentioned within the document. The micromorphological samples are indicated in red rectangles. (B) Picture of the stratigraphic profile of the north bank (mc-URK 4), where the following sequence is annotated: alluvial deposits including yellowish brown clays with strong brown redoximorphic features, intercalating bluish tongues (Unit 5), and sandy alluvial deposits (Unit 4). Paleosol with dark-gray clayey sands in diffuse boundary to the underling alluvial deposits (Unit 6). Aeolian deposits and yellowish–brown loose sands in a distinct boundary to the underlying paleosol (Unit 8). Topsoil.
Figure 8. (A) Illustrations of the stratigraphic sequences accompanied by detailed descriptions of the units (1–8) mentioned within the document. The micromorphological samples are indicated in red rectangles. (B) Picture of the stratigraphic profile of the north bank (mc-URK 4), where the following sequence is annotated: alluvial deposits including yellowish brown clays with strong brown redoximorphic features, intercalating bluish tongues (Unit 5), and sandy alluvial deposits (Unit 4). Paleosol with dark-gray clayey sands in diffuse boundary to the underling alluvial deposits (Unit 6). Aeolian deposits and yellowish–brown loose sands in a distinct boundary to the underlying paleosol (Unit 8). Topsoil.
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Figure 9. (a) Illustration of the stratigraphic profile of mc-URK 1, indicating the units discussed in the text and the locations of the micromorphological samples. (b) Photograph of the stratigraphic sequence of mc-URK1, from which micromorphological samples OUR9–OU11 were collected. The OSL sample locations are indicated by yellow dots.
Figure 9. (a) Illustration of the stratigraphic profile of mc-URK 1, indicating the units discussed in the text and the locations of the micromorphological samples. (b) Photograph of the stratigraphic sequence of mc-URK1, from which micromorphological samples OUR9–OU11 were collected. The OSL sample locations are indicated by yellow dots.
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Figure 10. Lithostratigraphic and elemental analysis graph of the stratigraphic profile of mc-URK1. The corresponding units are indicated with numbers to the right separated by orange lines.
Figure 10. Lithostratigraphic and elemental analysis graph of the stratigraphic profile of mc-URK1. The corresponding units are indicated with numbers to the right separated by orange lines.
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Figure 11. (A) Picture of the outlet of Ouriakos to the sea, where the terrace (rectangle) is shown behind which the wetland was formed. The modern seasonal wetland is indicated by the presence of reeds (arrow). (B) Picture of the north profile at the outlet of the stream to the sea, where the terrace is shown with the yellow dashed line. The calcarenites deepen abruptly, forming a bend, behind which the alluvial deposits are accumulated. An eroded calcarenite fragment is observed inside the alluvial deposits (arrow).
Figure 11. (A) Picture of the outlet of Ouriakos to the sea, where the terrace (rectangle) is shown behind which the wetland was formed. The modern seasonal wetland is indicated by the presence of reeds (arrow). (B) Picture of the north profile at the outlet of the stream to the sea, where the terrace is shown with the yellow dashed line. The calcarenites deepen abruptly, forming a bend, behind which the alluvial deposits are accumulated. An eroded calcarenite fragment is observed inside the alluvial deposits (arrow).
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Figure 12. (a–d) Schematic 3D illustrations showing the evolution of the site from the Upper Pleistocene to post 11,000 BP, viewed from a NW–NE oblique angle. Key landforms referenced in the main text are labeled in each sketch. Drawings are not to scale and represent conceptual reconstructions based on current interpretations.
Figure 12. (a–d) Schematic 3D illustrations showing the evolution of the site from the Upper Pleistocene to post 11,000 BP, viewed from a NW–NE oblique angle. Key landforms referenced in the main text are labeled in each sketch. Drawings are not to scale and represent conceptual reconstructions based on current interpretations.
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Figure 13. Image of an excavated stratigraphic section, displaying the contact between the firm, dark, clayey paleosol and the overlying aeolian sands (the contact is indicated with a dashed line. A lithic (indicated by an arrow) is present at the contact point.
Figure 13. Image of an excavated stratigraphic section, displaying the contact between the firm, dark, clayey paleosol and the overlying aeolian sands (the contact is indicated with a dashed line. A lithic (indicated by an arrow) is present at the contact point.
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Table 1. The single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) protocol applied for this study to coarse (63–80 μm) quartz grains.
Table 1. The single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) protocol applied for this study to coarse (63–80 μm) quartz grains.
StepTreatment
1Give dose
2Preheat, 10 s at 240 °C
3Blue LED stimulation, 40 s at 125 °C
4Give test dose
5Cut-heat, 0 s at 200 °C
6Blue LED stimulation, 40 s at 125 °C
7IR diode stimulation, 100 s at 125 °C
8Return to Step 1
Table 2. pIRIRSL SAR protocol for coarse-grained feldspar measurements.
Table 2. pIRIRSL SAR protocol for coarse-grained feldspar measurements.
StepTreatment
1Give dose
2Preheat, 60 s at 180 °C
3IR stimulation, 100 s at 50 °C
4IR stimulation, 100 s at 160 °C
5Give test dose
6Cut heat, 60 s at 180 °C
7IR stimulation, 100 s at 50 °C
8IR stimulation, 100 s at 160 °C
9IR stimulation, 40 s at 325 °C
10Return to Step 1
Table 3. Samples’ codes, radioelement contents, water concentrations, and calculated total dose rates. The grain size is 63–80 μm for all samples.
Table 3. Samples’ codes, radioelement contents, water concentrations, and calculated total dose rates. The grain size is 63–80 μm for all samples.
Sample ID U (ppm) Th (ppm) K
(wt %)		Rb
(ppm)		Water
(wt%)		Total Dose Rate
(Gy/ka)
Ext. Ext. Ext. Ext.
URK-1 (4.90–4.95)0.94.21.2851.6 2.51 1.91 ± 0.12
URK-1 (5.10)1.37.21.6870.7 6.7 2.52 ± 0.14
URK-1 (5.90)1.36.41.4669.2 6.94 2.24 ± 0.12
URK-1 (6.65)1.26.51.4162.3 5.83 2.21 ± 0.12
Table 4. Table summarizing the characteristics of the units described in the text.
Table 4. Table summarizing the characteristics of the units described in the text.
Unit No.Macroscopic Description Microscopic DescriptionInterpretationSample No.
Unit 1Yellowish–green clayYellowish–green clay with elongated vughs and voids due to bioturbation and aggregates of cemented mudstoneWeathered flyschOUR6
Units 2–3Coarse and fine sands in (a) cross bedding and climbing ripples;
(b) thin horizontal bedding with fine and coarse couplets		Sands cemented in a calcareous matrix with oolites, peloids, foraminifera, and shells in coarse (1 mm) (Unit 2) and fine laminations (0.5 mm) (Unit 3) Calcarenite (coastal marine deposits)OUR7 and OUR8
Unit 4Coarse silty sandsFine and locally coarse, well sorted, subrounded sands and calcarenite fragments in a silty clay matrix with oxidized staining, few calcareous aggregates, crystallitic infillings, and illuviation featuresTransitional alluvial deposits with eroded calcarenite fragmentsOUR4 and OUR11
Unit 5Yellowish–brown clays with strong brown redoximorphic features and intercalating bluish tonguesYellowish–brown clays with impregnation redoximorphic features, rounded fragments of sandstone, few rounded calcareous nodules, and a vughy microstructure with crystallitic infillings and shells fragmentsAlluvial deposits with indications of a fluctuating water tableOUR3 and OUR10
Unit 6aDark-gray soil with blocky microstructureDecalcified sandy loam–sandy silt loam, cross-striated clays, speckled Fe/Mn impregnations, sporadic calcareous infillings, channels with calcite-impregnated roots (queras), bioturbation features, and more oxidization in the lower part of the unitExposure-weak soil formationOUR1 OUR2, OUR3 and OUR9
Unit 6bIn undulating boundary to Unit 8Sand infiltration from Unit 7, fragments of calcarenite, and abundant calcareous infillings Truncated paleosol/bioturbation/aeolian processesOUR2
Unit 6cIn the south area, RK3, lithics are recorded on top of the unitOxidized sandy silt loam with extended calcareous infillings, calcarenite sand grains, abundant oolites, oxidation staining, a bone fragment at the bottom, and queras at the upper partReworked paleosolOUR5
Unit 7Firm sandsModerately sorted loamy sand, cross-striated/crystallitic b/f fabric, subrounded to subangular 250–500 μm quartz, quartzite, calcite, olivine, calcareous and crystallitic coatings cementing the matrix, redoximorphic features, and a granular structure with many voidsColluvial and/or aeolian?
The cementation is probably due to vadose processes 		OUR1, OUR5 and 9
Unit 8a Finely bedded to laminated, well sorted sands cemented with calciteAeolianitessouth bank
Unit 8bLoose sandsSilty sands in a granular microstructure; moderately sorted, abundant oolites, quartz, and calcite; sandstone (aeolianite); abundant foraminifera; and
fragments of calcarenite		Aeolian, reworkedOUR2
Table 5. pIRIRSL ages in ka of Lemnos samples using the CAM and MAM.
Table 5. pIRIRSL ages in ka of Lemnos samples using the CAM and MAM.
Sample IDMaterialNumber of AliquotsDose Rate (Gy/ka)Age (ka) *
mc-URK1_4.90–4.95Feldspar111.91 ± 0.1213.78 ± 0.8813.35 ± 0.94
mc-URK1 (5.10)Feldspar122.52 ± 0.1414.08 ± 0.8413.73 ± 0.78
mc-URK1_5.90Feldspar102.24 ± 0.1232.96 ± 2.326.79 ± 2.02
mc-URK1_6.65Feldspar122.21 ± 0.1229.82 ± 2.2625.35 ± 1.45
* Assuming a mix of potassium- and sodium-rich feldspars, it is realistic to consider that the calculated dose rates may be underestimated by about 20% (thus, the calculated ages may be proportionally overestimated). For this study, we applied a 20% underestimation to the values used.
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Gkouma, M.; Karkanas, P.; Koukousioura, O.; Syrides, G.; Chalkioti, A.; Tsakalos, E.; Ntinou, M.; Efstratiou, N. Exploring Continental and Submerged Paleolandscapes at the Pre-Neolithic Site of Ouriakos, Lemnos Island, Northeastern Aegean, Greece. Quaternary 2025, 8, 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030042

AMA Style

Gkouma M, Karkanas P, Koukousioura O, Syrides G, Chalkioti A, Tsakalos E, Ntinou M, Efstratiou N. Exploring Continental and Submerged Paleolandscapes at the Pre-Neolithic Site of Ouriakos, Lemnos Island, Northeastern Aegean, Greece. Quaternary. 2025; 8(3):42. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030042

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gkouma, Myrsini, Panagiotis Karkanas, Olga Koukousioura, George Syrides, Areti Chalkioti, Evangelos Tsakalos, Maria Ntinou, and Nikos Efstratiou. 2025. "Exploring Continental and Submerged Paleolandscapes at the Pre-Neolithic Site of Ouriakos, Lemnos Island, Northeastern Aegean, Greece" Quaternary 8, no. 3: 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030042

APA Style

Gkouma, M., Karkanas, P., Koukousioura, O., Syrides, G., Chalkioti, A., Tsakalos, E., Ntinou, M., & Efstratiou, N. (2025). Exploring Continental and Submerged Paleolandscapes at the Pre-Neolithic Site of Ouriakos, Lemnos Island, Northeastern Aegean, Greece. Quaternary, 8(3), 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8030042

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