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Article

Mechanical and Structural Properties of Biocomposites Reinforced with Bagasse Fibers from Sugarcane Overexpressing Sucrose Synthesis

by
Rahma Rei Sakura
1,
Bambang Sugiharto
2,3,*,
Widhi Dyah Sawitri
4,
Mochamad Asrofi
1,
Salahuddin Junus
1,
Dedi Dwilaksana
1 and
Wahyu Syahrul Fauzi
1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Jember, Jember 68121, Indonesia
2
Center for Development of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Jember, Jember 68121, Indonesia
3
Department of Biology Jember, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Jember, Jember 68121, Indonesia
4
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(9), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9090503
Submission received: 20 August 2025 / Revised: 12 September 2025 / Accepted: 14 September 2025 / Published: 18 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Biocomposites)
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Abstract

In this study, the mechanical and structural properties of biocomposites fabricated using transgenic sugarcane bagasse overexpressing sucrose synthesis were investigated. The bagasse fibers were extracted from the transgenic and non-transgenic (NT) sugarcane stalk, then treated with alkalization and carbonization, and their chemical composition was analyzed. The treated fibers were reinforced to produce biocomposites, and their mechanical and structural properties were evaluated by measuring tensile strength, elongation at break, modulus of elasticity and scanning electron microscopy. The cellulose content ranged from 40.6–44.2% in transgenic sugarcane and was higher than in NT sugarcane, with the highest content observed in transgenic SPS3. However, the cellulose and hemicellulose contents were reduced, and the lignin content was significantly increased after carbonization treatment. Alkalization treatment significantly increased the tensile strength, with the highest value of 30.46 MPa obtained at 9% NaOH concentration in a biocomposite fabricated from transgenic SPS3 bagasse fibers. However, carbonization of the SPS3 bagasse fibers lowered tensile strength and slightly increased modulus of elasticity in the biocomposite. Morphological analyses showed roughened fiber surfaces after alkalization and the formation of voids in the carbonized composites. These results indicate the potential of the transgenic sugarcane bagasse fibers with high cellulose content as a renewable reinforcement material for biocomposites.

1. Introduction

Agricultural biomass has emerged as a promising reinforcing material for biocomposites fabrication [1,2]. Carbon-based biocomposites offer several advantages, including biodegradability, cost-efficiency, and lightweight properties, while being environmentally sustainable [3]. These properties make natural fibers environmentally friendly alternatives to synthetic materials, which is in line with the increasing focus on environmental and industrial sustainability. Biomass-derived carbon materials play a pivotal role in high-performance industries such as automotive, aerospace, biomedical, and defense industries [4,5,6]. The growing demand for high-performance and sustainable materials has increased interest in natural fiber-reinforced biocomposites.
Sugarcane bagasse is a fibrous by-product of the sugarcane industry and consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [7]. Recent advances in plant biotechnology have increased the potential of sugarcane production through genetic engineering. Genetic engineering interventions to increase sucrose synthesis by overexpression of the SoSPS1 gene resulted in higher sucrose yield and biomass production in transgenic sugarcane [8,9]. Similar results have shown that enhancement of sucrose synthesis increases grain yield and biomass accumulation in transgenic rice and transgenic tomato [10,11,12]. In addition, the increase in sucrose synthesis activity was associated with the increased thickness of cellulose and improved fiber quality in transgenic cotton [13]. Sucrose synthesis increases cellulose production and alters the ultrastructure of the cell wall [14,15,16]. Therefore, the use of transgenic sugarcane bagasse for natural fiber-reinforced polymer-based biocomposite materials is a major challenge.
Bagasse is abundantly available in the sugarcane industry and is mainly used for electricity generation under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) scheme in Indonesian sugar mills [17]. Carbon-based materials have been investigated as fillers in composites produced by high-temperature carbonization. Carbonization of plant biomass by thermal decomposition produces an amorphous material with high thermal stability [18,19]. Carbonized natural fibers exhibit properties such as a clean and smooth surface, and have a positive influence on their mechanical properties [20]. However, the heating rate affects the carbonization process, and lower carbonization temperatures (300–500 °C) improve the tensile strength, wettability, and biocompatibility properties in bamboo fibers [18,21]. Higher heating to 700–1100 °C resulted in weight loss and longitudinal shrinkage due to cell size, combined and reorganized with neighboring cells in kenaf-based carbon fibers [22].
Sugarcane bagasse as a reinforcing material has been reported to increase the strength and stiffness of composites [23,24], including hybrid composites between palm fruit bunches and sugarcane bagasse [3]. Alkalization treatment is commonly used for the surface modification of cellulosic fibers to improve their mechanical and physical performances. Several studies have reported that the mechanical properties of composites made from alkali-treated fibers are better than those of untreated fibers. Biocomposites reinforced with alkalized fibers increased tensile strength in betel leaf powder [25], kenaf and palmyra fiber [26,27], rosella fiber [28], palm sheath, and sugarcane fibers [29,30]. Although reinforced carbonized and alkalized plant fibers have been investigated for the fabrication of composites, there are no reports on the use of transgenic sugarcane bagasse fibers treated with alkali and carbonization for the fabrication of biocomposites.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of transgenic sugarcane bagasse as a reinforcing material for the development of biomaterials using vinyl ester as a matrix. Alkalinization and carbonization treatments were performed to optimize the mechanical properties of the biocomposite, and the microstructural changes and fibers were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The alkalization significantly increased the tensile strength, while carbonization at 600 °C resulted in a lower tensile strength. Morphological analysis showed roughened fiber surfaces after alkalization and void formation in the carbonized composites.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Transgenic sugarcane bagasse was obtained by collecting stalks from transgenic sugarcane lines (SPS1, SPS3, and SPS9) and non-transgenic (NT) sugarcane at harvest. The transgenic sugarcane lines showed higher growth and productivity compared to NT, and the SPS3 line exhibited the highest cane yield [9]. To ensure a uniform and high-quality fiber yield, stalks were selected from the 3rd to 10th internodes and crushed to remove the sugarcane juice, leaving the fibrous bagasse. The bagasse was dried under sunlight for one week until it reached a constant dry weight, ground with a stainless-steel blender and sieved to a particle size of 80 mesh to obtain composite samples for further processing. Preparation of bagasse particles from the sugarcane stalks was presented in Figure 1.
Vinyl Ester Forthchem 411 VE (VE) (Ashland Inc., Shanghai, China) with a density of 1.20 g/cm3 was used as matrix material due to its excellent mechanical properties, including high tensile strength and thermal resistance. The advantage of VE is thermosetting polymers, mechanical strength, corrosion resistance, and ease of processing. The treated sugarcane bagasse fibers, with densities, heat distortion temperatures, viscosities, and glass transition temperatures of VE between 118 and 200 °C, complemented the properties of VE. Additional materials, such as catalysts and curing agents for the resin, were prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

2.2. Chemical Analysis

The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin content of the sugarcane bagasse fibers was determined using the Chesson gravimetry method, as previously described [31]. Briefly, this method involves chemical extraction and drying to quantify the main components of the fibers. Chemical extraction was performed with H2SO4, and after filtration and neutralization with H2O, the solid phase was dried until a constant weight was obtained.
The chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse fibers was further analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-Nicolet iS10, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The FTIR spectra of the bagasse were recorded in the range of 4000–500 cm−1. During data acquisition, a correlation search was performed to identify functional groups by comparing the spectral peaks with those of known reference compounds. Key peaks identified included hydroxyl groups, cellulose, lignin, and β-glycosidic linkages, which were matched to known compounds. These results confirmed the presence of key lignocellulosic components in the fibers.

2.3. Carbonization Treatment

Carbonization is the thermal decomposition of sugarcane bagasse fibers in a vacuum atmosphere. Sugarcane bagasse was placed in ceramic cups covered with aluminum foil to create a semi-sealed environment. The fibers were subjected to a high-temperature treatment of 600 °C in a furnace for 1 h under a vacuum atmosphere to minimize oxidation. This process converts the fibers into carbon-rich structures, removing cellulose and hemicellulose while retaining the lignin. After cooling to room temperature, the carbonized bagasse was ground and sieved through an 80-mesh particle size to ensure uniformity for the subsequent fabrication of the composites.

2.4. Alkalization Treatment

To chemically modify the sugarcane bagasse fibers and improve their compatibility with the vinyl ester matrix, alkaline treatment was performed. The fibers were treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions for 3 h at room temperature. The bagasse fibers (10 g) were soaked in various NaOH solutions at concentrations of 0, 5, 7, and 9% (w/v). The ratio of fiber to NaOH solution was kept constant at 1 g to 10 mL of the alkali solution. The fibers were then thoroughly rinsed with distilled water to neutralize the residual NaOH. After drying at 60 °C for 10 h to remove excess moisture, resulting in fibers with a roughened surface for improved matrix adhesion, they were kept in a desiccator for further analysis.

2.5. Fabrication of Biocomposites

The biocomposites were fabricated using the hand-lay-up technique. The silicon molds measuring 165 mm × 19 mm × 3.20 mm were prepared according to the protocol of ASTM D638–01 standard. Alkaline-treated sugarcane fibers and carbonized fibers were mixed with vinyl ester resin at a fiber-to-matrix volume ratio of 10:90. The mixture was stirred manually for 3 min to ensure uniform dispersion of the fibers within the resin.
The biocomposite mixture was poured into silicon molds and exposed to a vacuum for 24 h at room temperature to remove air bubbles that could compromise the structural integrity of the composites. After curing, the biocomposites were carefully demolded and re-measured to ensure compliance with ASTM D638–01 dimensions. Illustration of biocomposite fabrication after alkalization and carbonization treatments is presented in Figure 2.

2.6. Morphological Analysis and Mechanical Properties

The morphological characteristics of the fibers and fracture surfaces of the composite were examined using SEM (Hitachi TM3000, Tokyo, Japan) at an acceleration voltage of 15 kV. The SEM analysis focused on surface roughness, fiber breakage, agglomeration, debonding, and void formation. The images were captured at different magnifications to observe the interfacial bonding between the fibers and the vinyl ester matrix.
The mechanical properties of the biocomposites were evaluated by tensile tests according to the ASTM D638–01 standard. The prepared biocomposites were carefully demolded, remeasured to dimensions 165 mm × 19 mm × 3.20 mm, and used for analysis of mechanical properties. The tensile strength, elongation at break, and modulus of elasticity were measured using a Hung Ta-type HT-2402 universal testing machine (Suzhou, China), with a maximum capacity of 20 kN and a controlled crosshead speed or loading velocity at 1 mm per min, to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

3. Results

3.1. Chemical Composition of Sugarcane Bagasse Fibers

The chemical content of the bagasse fibers was analyzed using the Chesson method to determine the content of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin before reinforcing with vinyl ester resin. The results showed that cellulose was the dominant component and ranged from 40.6–44.2% in the untreated (non-carbonized) sugarcane bagasse fibers. Hemicellulose and lignin contents were lower, ranging from 4.6–5.9% and 12.8–16.9%, respectively (Table 1). Moreover, sugarcane bagasse also contains wax and ash, in addition to cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, depending on the maturity and quality of the sugarcane [7]. Interestingly, the cellulose content in the bagasse of the transgenic sugarcane was higher than that of the NT sugarcane, and SPS3 contained the highest cellulose content. These results indicate that the transgenic bagasse fibers retained their natural fibrous structure.
The carbonization treatment led to a dramatic reduction in cellulose and hemicellulose content in both the transgenic and NT sugarcane. The cellulose levels decreased to less than 1.2%, whereas the hemicellulose content was reduced to less than 1.49%. In contrast, lignin content increased significantly in all carbonized samples and exceeded 83.33% (Table 1). Among the transgenic varieties, SPS3 showed the highest lignin concentration (87.24%), surpassing NT sugarcane. SPS3 indicated the most pronounced compositional changes after carbonization, with the lowest residual cellulose (0.4%) and hemicellulose (0.55%) levels and the highest lignin content. These changes in the composition of the SPS3 bagasse fibers correlated with the morphological transformations observed in the SEM analysis before and after carbonization (Figure 3). Before carbonization treatment, the SPS3 fibers showed a fibrous and layered surface with debris and structural irregularities. However, the carbonized SPS3 exhibited a cleaner and more porous surface with a noticeable decrease in structural complexity. This transformation was attributed by the removal of cellulose and hemicellulose during carbonization and the high lignin content.
FTIR analysis was performed to determine the changes in the sugarcane fibers at the molecular level before (untreated) and after carbonization. Cellulose and hemicellulose are broken down into volatile gases and char during high-temperature carbonization. The FTIR spectra showed absorption bands corresponding to the cellulose and hemicellulose components in the non-carbonized fibers (Figure 4a). A broad absorption band between 3200−3600 cm−1 were observed, representing O-H stretching vibrations of hydroxyl groups in cellulose and hemicellulose. Furthermore, peaks at 2900, 1700, and firm peaks at 1000–1100 cm−1 corresponding to C-H, C=C, and C-O stretching for cellulose–hemicellulose, lignin, and another cellulose–hemicellulose in non-carbonized fibers, respectively.
The spectra of the carbonized samples showed significant changes in the intensities of the functional groups reflecting a chemical transformation (Figure 4b). The broad O-H absorption band at 3200–3600 cm−1 was significantly diminished, indicating the removal from the hydroxyl group of cellulose and hemicellulose during carbonization in all samples. However, the peaks in the 1600–1700 cm−1 range were more pronounced after carbonization, representing C=C stretching and reflecting the increase in lignin compounds. In addition, the stretching peaks at 1000–1100 cm−1 reflected the decomposition of cellulose and hemicellulose after carbonization. The spectral features of the carbonized fibers indicate the dominance of lignin-related functional groups, possibly shifting to an amorphous lignin-rich structure. This FTIR analysis provided evidence of the chemical transformations occurring during carbonization.

3.2. Mechanical Properties of Biocomposites

To investigate the mechanical properties, the SPS3 bagasse fiber was selected for the fabrication of the biocomposites in comparison to the NT fiber. Observation of the microfiber structure in the SPS3 bagasse fibers showed a decrease in diameter after the alkalization treatments. Depending on the NaOH concentration, the decreases ranged from 0.21 mm in untreated (0% NaOH) to 0.08 mm in 9% NaOH solution (Figure 5). A highly alkaline solution resulted in a smaller fiber diameter. The alkali treatment modifies the functional and structural properties of natural fibers [32]. The NaOH treatment improves surface characteristics of the bagasse fiber by removing amorphous constituents, surface impurities, and lignin. During alkali treatment, the hydroxyl group of the alkali interact with the alkali-sensitive group on the fiber, resulting in eliminating contaminants from the fiber structure [33].
Mechanical analysis showed that alkalization treatments significantly increased the tensile strength of the transgenic sugarcane according to the NaOH concentration, starting at 22.64 MPa in untreated (0% NaOH) and increasing to 26.8, 28.05, and 30.46 MPa in 5, 7, and 9% NaOH, respectively (Figure 6). The highest tensile strength was observed in the alkalization treatment with 9% NaOH. Alkalization removed surface impurities such as lignin and hemicellulose, which improved the interfacial bonding between the fibers and the vinyl ester matrix. It was observed that the microfiber of SPS3 revealed a cleaner surface after 9% NaOH treatment (Figure 5).
The tensile strength was also increased to 25.55 MPa by carbonization of SPS3 fiber compared to the untreated NaOH and NT fibers; however, it was lower than that of the alkalization treatments (Figure 6). The lowering in tensile strength was most likely due to the degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose during carbonization, resulting in a shift towards an amorphous lignin-rich structure. Although carbonization cannot achieve high tensile strength, it may effectively increase thermal stability owing to the dominance of the amorphous lignin framework [34,35]. This result indicates that the lower tensile strength is caused by decreasing cellulose and hemicellulose contents after carbonization treatment.
The alkalization and carbonization treatments increased the elongation at break of the transgenic sugarcane compared to the NT and untreated fibers. The highest elongation was achieved by the alkalization treatment with 5% NaOH and the carbonization, which resulted in 5.67% and 5.72%, respectively (Figure 7). The improvement in elongation of the carbonized fibers was most likely due to the dominant presence of lignin-related functional groups. In addition, the slight decrease in elongation with increasing NaOH concentration in the 9% NaOH treatment could be due to the excessive removal of hemicellulose and amorphous cellulose, resulting in embrittlement and a decrease in elongation.
The modulus of elasticity was lower, being 3.73, 3.78, and 3.75 GPa in NT, untreated NaOH, and 5% NaOH fibers, respectively. However, the higher alkalization treatments in 7 and 9% NaOH resulted in a slightly higher modulus of elasticity (Figure 8). Carbonization resulted in the highest modulus of elasticity of 4.53 GPa. This indicates that carbonization could be an effective method to increase the modulus of elasticity.

3.3. Morphological Analysis of the Biocomposite

The morphological characteristics of the biocomposites fabricated from SPS3 bagasse fibers were observed by SEM to understand the interfacial interactions between the fibers and the vinyl ester matrix. The SEM images revealed morphological phenomena, including fiber breakage, debonding, and agglomeration. The alkalization treatments improved the fiber-matrix adhesion and mechanical interlocking observed in the SEM images (Figure 9a,b).
Images of the biocomposites fabricated from the carbonization-treated fibers showed the presence of voids distributed throughout the biocomposites, which were attributed to the thermal degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose during carbonization (Figure 9c,d). The voids act as stress concentration points and reduce the effectiveness of load transfer between the fiber and the matrix, which explains the lower tensile strength observed in the carbonized biocomposites compared to those treated with alkalization. In addition, agglomeration was observed in the carbonized biocomposite, where the carbonized fibers clustered together, leading to premature failure. Carbonization creates voids and reduces the dispersion of fibers, which limits the overall mechanical performance of the biocomposites.

4. Discussion

In this study, bagasse fibers extracted from transgenic and NT sugarcane stalks were treated by alkalization and carbonization and then reinforced for biocomposite fabrication. The mechanical and structural properties of biocomposites were investigated. Alkalization significantly improved the tensile strength in SPS3 transgenic fiber compared to the NaOH-untreated and the NT fibers (Figure 6). This improvement was attributed to the removal of lignin and hemicellulose, increased fiber roughness, and improved fiber–matrix bonding [36]. The exposed cellulose improved the bonding compatibility of the fibers with the vinyl ester matrix. In addition, carbonization resulted in moderate tensile strength due to thermal degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose. However, carbonization resulted in higher elongation at break (Figure 7), which is attributed to the flexibility of the lignin-dominated structures, despite minor structural imperfections, such as the formation of voids and agglomeration (Figure 9c,d). These results underscore the trade-off between tensile strength and ductility: alkalization is optimal for maximizing tensile strength with 9% NaOH, whereas carbonization increases elongation at break. This emphasizes the importance of tailoring the treatment conditions to the specific requirements of the application.
Various cellulose-based polymeric biocomposite materials have been developed for applications in the automotive, aerospace, defense technology, biomedical devices, shielding gadgets, and sensor industries [37,38,39]. Cellulose is the main component of the plant cell wall and is synthesized by cellulose synthase, which uses UDP-glucose as a substrate. UDP-glucose is produced by the cleavage of sucrose using the activity of sucrose synthase (SuSy) [16]. Overexpression of the SuSy gene indirectly improves fiber quality in cotton, suggesting that this gene has excellent potential to improve cotton fiber [40]. However, recent evidence has shown that SuSy is not required for cellulose biosynthesis in Arabidopsis [14], nor is it the sole regulator of cellulose synthesis [41]. Overexpression of the SPS gene increases sucrose synthesis and improves cotton fiber quality [13]. We have found that overexpression of the SPS gene increases sucrose content and biomass in plants [8,9,10,11]. The increase in biomass accumulation by sucrose is followed by sucrose hydrolysis, which is facilitated by an increase in acid invertase (AI) activity [8]. The increase in sucrose hydrolysis serves to provide energy to improve growth and cellulose biosynthesis. Measurements of carbohydrate content showed that cellulose content was higher in transgenic sugarcane than in NT sugarcane (Table 1). Therefore, the biocomposite reinforced with bagasse fibers from transgenic SPS3 sugarcane exhibited higher tensile strength and elongation after alkalization and carbonization treatments.
This is the first study on the fabrication of biocomposites reinforced with bagasse fiber extracted from transgenic sugarcane, which has higher sucrose synthesis. Several studies have reported the use of bagasse for the production of polymeric biocomposites [24,29,40]. The advantages of bagasse as a natural fiber for the reinforcement of biocomposites are its abundance, environmental safety, recyclability, relatively high tensile strength and modulus elasticity, thermal isolator, and reasonable cost. The use of transgenic sugarcane bagasse offers additional advantages while increasing sugar production.

5. Conclusions

The mechanical and structural properties of biocomposites can be improved by reinforcing bagasse from transgenic sugarcane overexpressing sucrose synthesis. Alkalization treatment of bagasse fibers from SPS3 transgenic sugarcane significantly improved the tensile strength. Carbonization of the bagasse resulted in lower tensile strength but slightly higher elongation at break with a higher stiffness modulus of elasticity in the biocomposite. Morphological analyses revealed roughened fiber surfaces after alkalization and void formation in the carbonized composites. This highlights the clear advantages of the alkalization and carbonization treatments for tailoring the mechanical and structural properties of biocomposites.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.R.S. and B.S.; methodology, R.R.S. and M.A.; software, W.D.S.; validation, S.J. and D.D.; formal analysis, R.R.S. and W.S.F.; investigation, R.R.S., W.S.F. and M.A.; resources, B.S.; data curation, S.J. and D.D.; writing—original draft preparation, R.R.S., W.D.S. and B.S.; writing—review and editing, R.R.S. and B.S.; visualization, R.R.S. and W.S.F.; supervision, B.S., S.J. and D.D.; project administration, W.D.S.; funding acquisition, B.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Indonesian eRISPRO LPDP (grant numbers PRJ-4/LPDP/LPDP.4/2023–4818/UN25.3.1/LT/2023) and University of Jember for Young Scientists (grant numbers 14970/UN25/KP/2022).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their appreciation to Intan Ria Neliana for the administration help.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 1. Preparation of bagasse particles from sugarcane stalks.
Figure 1. Preparation of bagasse particles from sugarcane stalks.
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Figure 2. Illustration of biocomposite fabrication after alkalization or carbonization treatments.
Figure 2. Illustration of biocomposite fabrication after alkalization or carbonization treatments.
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Figure 3. SEM images of transgenic sugarcane SPS3 bagasse (a) before (untreated) and (b) after carbonisation treatments. SEM image at 1000 magnification.
Figure 3. SEM images of transgenic sugarcane SPS3 bagasse (a) before (untreated) and (b) after carbonisation treatments. SEM image at 1000 magnification.
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Figure 4. FTIR spectra in sequences of 4000–500 cm−1 in sugarcane bagasse (NT, SPS1, SPS3, SPS9) (a) before and (b) after carbonization treatments.
Figure 4. FTIR spectra in sequences of 4000–500 cm−1 in sugarcane bagasse (NT, SPS1, SPS3, SPS9) (a) before and (b) after carbonization treatments.
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Figure 5. The microfibers of transgenic sugarcane SPS3 bagasse exhibited different surfaces before and after alkalization treatments at 5%, 7%, and 9%. Bagasse fibers were observed using a Digital Microscope.
Figure 5. The microfibers of transgenic sugarcane SPS3 bagasse exhibited different surfaces before and after alkalization treatments at 5%, 7%, and 9%. Bagasse fibers were observed using a Digital Microscope.
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Figure 6. Tensile strength of biocomposites fabricated with sugarcane bagasse from non-transgenic (NT) and SPS3 transgenic sugarcane. Untreated represents the bagasse before alkalization, after being treated with 5, 7, and 9% NaOH, and carbonization.
Figure 6. Tensile strength of biocomposites fabricated with sugarcane bagasse from non-transgenic (NT) and SPS3 transgenic sugarcane. Untreated represents the bagasse before alkalization, after being treated with 5, 7, and 9% NaOH, and carbonization.
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Figure 7. Elongation at break of biocomposites fabricated with sugarcane bagasse from non-transgenic (NT) and SPS3 transgenic sugarcane. The figure legend is the same as in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Elongation at break of biocomposites fabricated with sugarcane bagasse from non-transgenic (NT) and SPS3 transgenic sugarcane. The figure legend is the same as in Figure 7.
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Figure 8. Modulus of elasticity of biocomposites fabricated with sugarcane bagasse from non-transgenic (NT) and SPS3 transgenic sugarcane. The figure legend is the same as in Figure 7.
Figure 8. Modulus of elasticity of biocomposites fabricated with sugarcane bagasse from non-transgenic (NT) and SPS3 transgenic sugarcane. The figure legend is the same as in Figure 7.
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Figure 9. SEM images of biocomposite fabricated from SPS3 sugarcane bagasse with (a,b) alkalization and (c,d) carbonization treatments. SEM images (a,c) and (b,d) at 500× and 1000× magnification, respectively. The yellow and red arrows indicate voids and agglomeration, respectively.
Figure 9. SEM images of biocomposite fabricated from SPS3 sugarcane bagasse with (a,b) alkalization and (c,d) carbonization treatments. SEM images (a,c) and (b,d) at 500× and 1000× magnification, respectively. The yellow and red arrows indicate voids and agglomeration, respectively.
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Table 1. Lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose content in bagasse before and after carbonization treatment. NT represents non-transgenic; SPS1, SPS3, and SPS9 are transgenic lines. Values are means ± SE for two independent samples.
Table 1. Lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose content in bagasse before and after carbonization treatment. NT represents non-transgenic; SPS1, SPS3, and SPS9 are transgenic lines. Values are means ± SE for two independent samples.
Sample TypesHemicellulose (%)Cellulose (%)Lignin (%)
UntreatedNT5.89 ± 0.4340.64 ± 0.2516.92 ± 0.64
SPS14.84 ± 0.2141.92 ± 1.9712.84 ± 0.35
SPS34.64 ± 0.5044.20 ± 0.6414.43 ± 0.31
SPS95.55 ± 0.3841.50 ± 0.7314.20 ± 0.62
CarbonizationNT1.15 ± 0.350.85 ± 0.3584.21 ± 0.13
SPS11.05 ± 0.070.75 ± 0.0784.35 ± 0.28
SPS30.55 ± 0.490.40 ± 0.2887.24 ± 0.07
SPS91.49 ± 0.421.20 ± 0.4283.33 ± 0.40
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MDPI and ACS Style

Sakura, R.R.; Sugiharto, B.; Sawitri, W.D.; Asrofi, M.; Junus, S.; Dwilaksana, D.; Fauzi, W.S. Mechanical and Structural Properties of Biocomposites Reinforced with Bagasse Fibers from Sugarcane Overexpressing Sucrose Synthesis. J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9, 503. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9090503

AMA Style

Sakura RR, Sugiharto B, Sawitri WD, Asrofi M, Junus S, Dwilaksana D, Fauzi WS. Mechanical and Structural Properties of Biocomposites Reinforced with Bagasse Fibers from Sugarcane Overexpressing Sucrose Synthesis. Journal of Composites Science. 2025; 9(9):503. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9090503

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sakura, Rahma Rei, Bambang Sugiharto, Widhi Dyah Sawitri, Mochamad Asrofi, Salahuddin Junus, Dedi Dwilaksana, and Wahyu Syahrul Fauzi. 2025. "Mechanical and Structural Properties of Biocomposites Reinforced with Bagasse Fibers from Sugarcane Overexpressing Sucrose Synthesis" Journal of Composites Science 9, no. 9: 503. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9090503

APA Style

Sakura, R. R., Sugiharto, B., Sawitri, W. D., Asrofi, M., Junus, S., Dwilaksana, D., & Fauzi, W. S. (2025). Mechanical and Structural Properties of Biocomposites Reinforced with Bagasse Fibers from Sugarcane Overexpressing Sucrose Synthesis. Journal of Composites Science, 9(9), 503. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9090503

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