Additive Manufacturing of Copper—A Survey on Current Needs and Challenges
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Additive Manufacturing of Copper Materials
1.2. Properties of Additively Manufactured Copper Components and Material Specimens
2. Materials and Methods
# | Question | Answer Options | Multiple Answers Possible? |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Which country are you from? |
| No |
2 | Which sectors or industries are you working in? |
| Yes |
3 | What is your current position? |
| No |
# | Question | Answer Options | Multiple Answers Possible? |
---|---|---|---|
4 | How long have you worked with 3D printing processes? |
| No |
5 | Which AM technologies are you familiar with (know about, worked with)? |
| Yes |
6 | What are your experiences with additively manufactured copper parts? |
| No |
7 | Based on AM-specific challenges: What do you perceive as the biggest barriers to the widespread adoption of AM for copper parts? |
| Yes |
8 | What improvements would you prioritize to promote the use of AM for copper components in your industry? |
| Yes |
9 | Which of the potentials offered by additive manufacturing of copper components are most relevant for your industry? |
| Yes |
# | Question | Answer Options | Multiple Answers Possible? |
---|---|---|---|
10 | What do you perceive as the main technical barriers to the adoption of AM for copper in your industry? |
| Yes |
11 | To utilize potentials offered by additive manufacturing, which negative aspects of AM are acceptable for the application of copper parts in your industry? |
| Yes |
12 | To what degree are diminished material properties acceptable in your industry? |
| No |
13 | Considering all positive aspects (e.g., production on demand, design freedom, toolless manufacturing) and negative aspects (e.g., size limitations, diminished material properties), what is your personal assessment about the quality of AM copper parts? |
| No |
14 | Which of the following AM trends do you believe could promote increased adoption of AM for copper parts in your industry? |
| Yes |
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Section
3.2. General and Specific Section: Additive Manufacturing of Copper Components
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- The average study participant has over two years of experience with additive manufacturing for metals and polymers, is an engineer in research and comes from Germany or Europe.
- Reduced mechanical, thermal and electrical properties can be acceptable for users. Most answers indicate an acceptable degree of diminished properties of between ≥1% and ≥5% but ≤10%.
- The number of participants who deem the applicability of copper AM for their industry as unfeasible due to lacking overall quality is twice as large as participants who consider part quality to be sufficient; 42% of participants are not able to make an assessment of the applicability of copper AM, again hinting at a low market penetration of this technology.
- Important trends identified in this study are a higher degree of automation as well as multi-material printing and the upscaling of machine sizes.
- Challenges: technical limitations are mentioned the most by the participants of the study, while higher costs, production flaws and a lack of technology awareness are also mentioned. Of the technical limitations, the surface quality is most frequently mentioned.
- Needs: AM processes need to become more reliable and less costly, while producing parts with a quality similar to conventionally manufactured parts.
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AM | Additive Manufacturing |
IACS | International Annealed Copper Standard |
LPBF | Laser Powder Bed Fusion |
BJ | Binder Jetting |
MFDM | Metal Fused Deposition Modeling |
Appendix A
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Brazil | Plant and mechanical engineering, Manufacturing | Manager (administrating research or production) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Higher costs, Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Production without specific tools, Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Although cost might not be a technical barrier I see it as the main reason, together with the maturity of the technology (not stable yet) and reduced scalability | Reduced electrical conductivity, Reduced thermal conductivity, Reduced surface quality, Reduced mechanical properties, The advantages to be able to produce a part without expensive tools or molds are important and will allow a reduced quality to some extent | ≥10% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Better machine process stability, and cost reduction |
UK | Manufacturing | Technician (laboratory, production) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard) | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | Reduced electrical conductivity | ≥5% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | |
China | Manufacturing | Manager (administrating research or production) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties) | Process reliability | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Limited surface quality | Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
France | Manufacturing, Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | Reduced electrical conductivity, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥5% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
UK | Electrical engineering and energy | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard) | Cost reduction | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced electrical properties | Reduced thermal conductivity, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Multi-material printing |
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Canada | Research | Professor | More than 10 years experience | Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM), Ceramics | I apply additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | It depends on the application. For some it is the only solution and for others it is very costly | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Production without specific tools, Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Monolithic design, combining of components, Integration of components like sensors during manufacturing | Limited surface quality, Oxidization | Porosity | ≤1% | The overall quality is sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Switzerland | Research | Manager (administrating research or production) | More than 10 years experience | Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I do research on additively manufactured copper parts | Higher costs, Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Process reliability | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Monolithic design, combining of components | Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy, Limited part size | Reduced surface quality | ≥5% | N/A - we are doing research | Multi-material printing, new AM processes (e.g., green/blue laser AM) |
India | Research | Manager (administrating research or production) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Integration of components like sensors during manufacturing | Reduced mechanical properties, Limited surface quality | Reduced surface quality, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥5% | The overall quality is sufficient, and copper AM is applied in my industry. | Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
UK | Plant and mechanical engineering, Manufacturing | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Monolithic design, combining of components, Integration of components like sensors during manufacturing | Reduced thermal properties, Limited surface quality | Reduced electrical conductivity, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Poland | Manufacturing, Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production without specific tools, Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Monolithic design, combining of components | Reduced thermal properties, Limited surface quality, Limited part size | Reduced electrical conductivity | ≥5% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Germany | Electrical engineering and energy, Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | Less than 2 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard) | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Monolithic design, combining of components, Lower overall resource consumption and environmental footprint | Reduced electrical properties, Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | Reduced mechanical properties | ≥5% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Multi-material printing |
Germany | Manufacturing, Research, aero | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 10 years experience | Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I apply additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, production rate | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced shape accuracy, Limited part size | The overall quality is sufficient for my industry. | Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes | ||
USA | Plant and mechanical engineering, Manufacturing | Technician (laboratory, production) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy, Limited part size | Reduced electrical conductivity | ≥5% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering | Managing Director | No experience | With no AM technology | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties) | Cost reduction, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures | Reduced mechanical properties, Limited part size | Reduced electrical conductivity, Reduced thermal conductivity | ≥ 5% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Germany | Research | Research Assistant | Less than 2 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Process reliability | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | Reduced mechanical properties | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | ||
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering, Research | Research Assistant | Less than 2 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I additively manufactured copper parts for research. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Process reliability | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Monolithic design, combining of components | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Multi-material printing | ||||
Germany | Manufacturing, Research | PhD Student | Less than 2 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Reflectivity of copper for laser based technologies | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures | Reduced mechanical properties, Reduced electrical properties, Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy, High costs for powder production and handling, as well as low throughput | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Achieving and adjusting special material properties through additive manufacturing | ||
Germany | Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Regulatory issues (e.g., certifications for the automotive or aerospace sector) | Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Lower overall resource consumption and environmental footprint | Reduced thermal properties, Limited part size | Reduced surface quality, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Germany | Manufacturing, Mobility, Electrical engeneering and energy | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | With no AM technology | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production without specific tools, Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced mechanical properties, Reduced thermal properties, Reduced electrical properties, Limited part size | Reduced surface quality | ≥1% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Germany | Building and construction | Technician (laboratory, production) | Less than 2 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Higher costs, Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures | ≥5% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems | ||
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 10 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | More awareness and distribution of information about AM potentials and options | Production without specific tools, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures | Reduced electrical properties | Reduced surface quality | ≥5% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | |
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I apply additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties) | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | Reduced thermal conductivity, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥5% | The overall quality is sufficient for my industry. | |
Germany | Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 10 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Higher costs | Cost reduction, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Monolithic design, combining of components | Reduced thermal properties, Reduced electrical properties, Always looking for the perfect application | Reduced surface quality, Reduced mechanical properties | ≤1% | There is no perfect application in terms of complexity, required properties, batch size, etc. to justify the higher costs | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Multi-material printing |
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Germany | Manufacturing, Electrical engeneering and energy, Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I apply additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced mechanical properties, Reduced electrical properties | Reduced electrical conductivity, Reduced thermal conductivity | ≥1% | The overall quality is sufficient for my industry. | Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Germany | Manufacturing | Manager (administrating research or production) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures | Reduced thermal properties, Limited surface quality | Reduced mechanical properties | ≥5% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
Germany | Research | Student (in training) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Higher costs, Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Monolithic design, combining of components | Reduced thermal properties, Reduced electrical properties | Reduced surface quality, Reduced mechanical properties | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes | |
Germany | Research | Professor | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I apply additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard) | Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Lower overall resource consumption and environmental footprint | Reduced electrical properties, Limited part size | Reduced thermal conductivity, Reduced surface quality | ≥1% | The overall quality is sufficient for my industry. | Multi-material printing |
Germany | Manufacturing | Student (in training) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Regulatory issues (e.g., certifications for the automotive or aerospace sector), Time restrictions (general problem of AM) | Cost reduction, Process reliability | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Limited surface quality | Reduced mechanical properties | ≥5% | N/A | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Austria | Metallindustrie | Technician (laboratory, production) | No experience | Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties) | Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced thermal properties, Reduced electrical properties, Limited part size | Reduced electrical conductivity, Reduced thermal conductivity | ≤1% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
Germany | Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Lower overall resource consumption and environmental footprint | Reduced mechanical properties, Reduced thermal properties, Reduced electrical properties, Reduced shape accuracy, Limited part size | Reduced surface quality | ≥1% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering, Electrical engeneering and energy | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production without specific tools, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Lower overall resource consumption and environmental footprint | Reduced mechanical properties, Reduced thermal properties, Reduced electrical properties | Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I know about specific parts and their manufacturers. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), | In our manufacturing industry, copper is rarely or not used at all, only brass components for maritime use | Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced mechanical properties, Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy, Limited part size | Reduced surface quality, Subsequent machining is usually always necessary | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Multi-material printing, Upscaling of machines and part sizes | |
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering, Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | More than 5 years experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Cost reduction, Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production without specific tools, Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Lower overall resource consumption and environmental footprint | Reduced thermal properties, Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
Q 1 | Q 2 | Q 3 | Q 4 | Q 5 | Q 6 | Q 7 | Q 8 | Q 9 | Q 10 | Q 11 | Q 12 | Q 13 | Q 14 |
Germany | Research | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Technical limitations (achievable part properties), Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard) | Process reliability, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced thermal properties, Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | Reduced electrical conductivity, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | The overall quality is not sufficient for my industry. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems |
Germany | Electrical engeneering and energy | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I tested additively manufactured copper parts for my industry. | Higher costs, Technical limitations (achievable part properties) | Cost reduction, Achieving material properties identical to conventionally processed copper | Production without specific tools, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes | Reduced electrical properties, Limited surface quality, Limited part size | Reduced surface quality, Reduced mechanical properties | ≥1% | Cannot yet be conclusively assessed | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Upscaling of machines and part sizes |
Germany | Plant and mechanical engineering | Engineer (planning, supervision) | 2 to 5 years of experience | Processes for polymer materials (e.g., FFF, SLS, SLA), Processes for metallic materials (e.g., LPBF, DED, EBM) | I don’t have experience with AM copper parts. | Flaws in production (deviations from the production standard), Lack of awareness (possibilities of copper AM unknown) | Exploiting the unique process advantages of AM compared to conventional manufacturing processes | Production without specific tools, Production with short lead times, Manufacturing of complex shapes, undercuts, hollow structures, Manufacturing of individual parts or prototypes, Monolithic design, combining of components, Lower overall resource consumption and environmental footprint, Targeted control of the developed microstructure and mechanical properties | Limited surface quality, Reduced shape accuracy | I do not have sufficient experience for an assessment. | Higher degree of automation of AM systems, Multi-material printing |
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Schäfle, M.B.; Fett, M.; Gärtner, J.; Kirchner, E. Additive Manufacturing of Copper—A Survey on Current Needs and Challenges. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9, 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040109
Schäfle MB, Fett M, Gärtner J, Kirchner E. Additive Manufacturing of Copper—A Survey on Current Needs and Challenges. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing. 2025; 9(4):109. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040109
Chicago/Turabian StyleSchäfle, Moritz Benedikt, Michel Fett, Julian Gärtner, and Eckhard Kirchner. 2025. "Additive Manufacturing of Copper—A Survey on Current Needs and Challenges" Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 9, no. 4: 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040109
APA StyleSchäfle, M. B., Fett, M., Gärtner, J., & Kirchner, E. (2025). Additive Manufacturing of Copper—A Survey on Current Needs and Challenges. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 9(4), 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9040109