Factors Influencing Households’ Willingness to Pay for Advanced Waste Management Services in an Emerging Nation

Abstract

This paper analyzes the factors affecting the willingness to pay of urban households concerned with efficient waste management in Bangladesh. The multistage random sampling approach selected 1400 families from seven major cities in Bangladesh. This study addresses the socioeconomic and environmental factors that influence urban households’ willingness to pay for improved waste management services in Bangladesh. This study uniquely contributes to the literature by providing a large-scale empirical analysis of 1470 households using a logit model, revealing income, education, and environmental awareness as key predictors of WTP. Detailed survey data from respondents were then analyzed using a logit model based on the contingent valuation method. Indeed, the logit model showed that six variables (education, monthly income, value of the asset, knowledge of environment, and climate change) had a statistically significant effect on the WTP of the households. The results show that 63% of respondents were willing to pay BDT 250 or more per month. The most influential factors driving this willingness to pay were income (OR = 1.35), education level (OR = 1.45), and environmental awareness (OR = 3.56). These variables all contribute positively towards WTP. The idea is that families have some socioeconomic characteristics, regardless of which they are ready to pay for a higher level of waste collection. It is recommended that government interference be affected through various approaches, as listed below: support for public–private sector undertaking and disposal, an extensive cleaning campaign, decentralized management, cutting waste transport costs, and privatization of some waste management systems. These could be used to develop solutions to better waste management systems and improve public health.

1. Introduction

Bangladesh’s urban areas generate over 23,000 tons of waste daily, yet only 40% is formally collected. Despite this, little is known about what drives households to financially support improved services [1]. WTP is defined as the ability or intention of consumers to pay for a particular product or service, which is a vital tool to measure that commodity’s value or demand in the market. Determining the factors and characteristics affecting WTP helps policymakers and businesspeople create adequate pricing and policy strategies, improving consumer acceptance and customer satisfaction [2,3]. WTP questions refer to enhanced household waste pickup frequency, the provision of bins, and guaranteed disposal through formal channels [1]. The global problem of waste management remains pertinent and urgent since the accelerated rates of waste generation in the worldwide context demand a more sustainable solution, especially in developing countries like Bangladesh [4]. The government is facing the challenge of discharging high amounts of trash due to the current high population growth and the size of the population living in urban centers [5]. Over the years, Bangladesh has made commendable efforts to handle the issue, yet it has yet to make significant progress. It is high time that a comprehensive and sustainable systematic waste management system was implemented [6]. One way of financing such a system is to assess the preparedness of the public to pay for better waste management services, as explored in other studies [7,8,9]. This study aims to identify the relevance of a better waste management system and explore the concept of WTP in Bangladesh. It explains the challenges, risks, and opportunities linked to raising awareness about a better-formed, environmentally conscious world and the possibilities of its construction [10].

The research objective of this study is to examine the factors that may affect households’ WTP for enhanced waste management services as concerns Bangladesh. This study aims to contribute to knowledge regarding sustainable waste management issues, both urban and rural, across Bangladesh by exploring and understanding what influences people’s financial readiness to contribute more towards better waste management systems that reduce environmental pollution. Therefore, the objectives of this research are as follows: to identify critical factors that can affect households’ WTP; to examine and quantify the level of WTP through the use of barriers and drivers; and to offer valuable information that can guide policymakers in the development of waste management policies and strategies that will effectively serve the needs and capabilities of households across the nation [11].

Waste management is relevant to diverse environmental aspects, resource conservation, climate change, compounded health, sustainable livelihoods, and aesthetic and economic benefits. First, applying efficient waste management solutions helps prevent pollution and reduce the spread of dangerous chemicals into the soil and water, thus ensuring the safety of human health and environmental conservation [12,13,14]. In addition, recycling and waste-to-energy processes minimize the extraction of new products from natural sources due to the recovery of valuable materials from garbage, thus helping reduce pressure on natural resources and landfills [15,16,17,18]. In addition, it is also essential to understand that the decomposition of garbage, if not regulated, will release dangerous gases, known as greenhouse gases, thus worsening the climate change challenge. The European Union can develop sustainable waste management options to minimize these harmful effects. Also, training to meet higher waste management standards serves purposes beyond secondary gains, such that it can positively influence disease control due to the prevention of transmission, hence improving the public health of a country while also creating employment for the population in the recycling and waste processing industries [19,20,21]. Moreover, enhancing the cleanliness of streets and the environment improves the outlook of cities, attracting tourists and leading to innovative economic development. Thus, the proper disposal of waste is paramount to achieving sustainable development goals. Between willingness to pay (WTP) and efficient waste management, the issue is centered on people’s abilities to fund appropriate waste reduction and risk prevention in line with their appraised worth of environmental quality and sustainability. These results imply that higher bids for wastewater treatment (WTW) are derived from enhanced comprehension and support for waste management interventions like recycling, waste segregating, and investing in installations in waste treatments [22,23,24,25].

Furthermore, studies show that consumers willing to pay more for enhanced services in waste management can exhibit pro-environmental behavior and embrace effective waste disposal and disposal practices, hence adding to waste management’s effectiveness. Therefore, coherent and effective policies and programs meant to address WTP and an efficient waste management system should be oriented toward understanding the social welfare of the people [26,27,28,29]. Various challenges are also faced in handling the enormous waste produced [30]. Among them, perhaps one of the most pressing is the lack of necessary conditions to adequately address the constantly increasing amount of garbage produced daily [1,31,32,33]. Recent data reveal that the waste management infrastructure is often outdated and inefficient in coping with the rapidly escalating levels of waste produced [34]. However, before delving into the specifics of the methodology, one must recognize that the informal waste sector plays a crucial role in waste management, which, in turn, leads to inefficiencies and, simultaneously, creates some environmental issues [35]. The existence of informal systems such as the household landfill dumping system and people involved in waste picking and collecting, as well as dumping waste in whatever manner they deem fit, poses a severe threat to the environment and human health since people practice informal dumping or disposal of waste, which may be hazardous [36,37,38]. As much as waste management is affected by this scenario, it also compounds social and economic inequality. In addition, the lack of awareness of the importance of waste segregating, recycling, and responsible waste disposal has also been noted and highlighted in the literature [12,39,40]. Proper waste segregation is not performed, which leads to the rejection of recyclable waste in landfills and the accumulation of banned waste products that are environmentally lethal. Furthermore, funding constraints, restricted government budgets, a lack of revenue in the management of waste, and the establishment of modern waste management systems are some of the factors that hamper the progress of different waste management programs throughout the nation [28,41,42]. This study seeks to answer the following main research question: what are the key drivers—demographic, economic, and attitudinal—that influence WTP for waste services in urban Bangladesh?

Hypothesis of Study

Waste management remains a global concern with broad impacts on the status of environmental sustainability and subsequent effects on health and socioeconomic outcomes in developed countries and the developing world. Waste management issues are even worse in the context of developing countries, including Bangladesh, where threats are so severe that they threaten the environment and human health. This study explores the antecedents influencing the willingness to pay for better waste management services. Knowledge of these factors is crucial for any nation’s policymakers, urban planners, and waste management decision-makers to formulate effective policies and functional intervention measures that can challenge and influence the community to adopt a responsible waste disposal and management culture. Thus, by revealing the determinants of WTP in the context of the present research, it is possible to contribute to the formulation of relevant practical and efficient policies and programs that would maintain or increase the willingness of the population to act more responsibly in efforts to contribute to the effective functioning of waste management in Bangladesh and, in general, create comfortable living conditions without harming the environment.

H1: 

There is no significant effect of the level of education on willingness to pay (WTP) for better waste management in urban areas in Bangladesh.

H2: 

There is no relation between willingness to pay (WTP) for better waste management and environmental attitudes in urban areas in Bangladesh.

H3: 

There is no relation between willingness to pay (WTP) for better waste management and climate change attitudes in urban areas in Bangladesh.

H4: 

There is no influence of income level on WTP among the people.

H5: 

There is no impact of gender on WTP in urban areas in Bangladesh.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Assessing Willingness to Pay (WTP)

The concept of willingness to pay (WTP) is particularly relevant, given that it offers practical findings on people’s or families’ willingness to contribute to public utilities or other services [43]. In Bangladesh’s waste management context, willingness to pay (WTP) is an integral factor in influencing expenditure commitments and the degree of support from people towards enhancing the physical facilities and service delivery systems of waste management departments. It is crucial to note that several methods can be employed to evaluate willingness to pay, as outlined below [44]. Data from household surveys include a population’s demographic characteristics, preferences, and attitudes toward waste management, and the ability to contribute to waste management efforts [34]. Such surveys hold the potential to assess numerous waste management contingencies and costs and people’s willingness to participate in recycling activities or recycle waste. The contingent valuation method (CVM) gathers people’s WTP for improved waste management services in hypothetical scenarios. Authors utilizing this method selected participants, presented them with different options for waste disposal, and asked them about their WTP for these options [45]. This approach involves presenting various waste management service options and assessing participants’ willingness to pay for specific options. By proposing a set of possibilities, planners can identify optimal approaches to waste management and determine their attendees’ willingness to pay for them [46,47]. In Bangladesh where there is scarce data regarding WTP, it is feasible to anticipate WTP via data accumulated from prior studies conducted in other regions possessing similar characteristics [48]. This allows for the initial appraisement of public opinions and potential revenue contributions. Using new media channels is one practical way to seek people’s opinions and infer their feelings towards waste management efforts and possibly financial support. Incorporating social media or online polls can result in a large audience engaging with research and capture the current sentiments of many people [30].

2.2. Promoting Willingness to Pay (WTP) in Bangladesh

Therefore, to fully introduce WTP strategies for better waste management, there is a need to develop a holistic approach that involves many groups in society to ensure the public’s participation [49]. Several activities can be undertaken to increase the WTP of citizens in Bangladesh. The visible, positive impacts of waste management on the environment and public health are essential aspects that need to be addressed and used to complement efficient waste management [27,50,51]. A general awareness of waste segregation, recycling, and proper disposal could also foster concern and capacity to support waste management cause among people. The push to realize effective waste management measures requires the development of partnerships involving multisectoral governmental agencies, private manufacturers and businesses, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and community-based organizations [52]. By integrating the resources and skills of these many stakeholders, we can formulate and implement an efficient waste management system. In practice, the public and producers may require motivation in the form of incentives such as tax allowances or waivers for utilities of recycling programs centered on weight reduction in trash, which may positively shift WTP [53]. The use of incentives regarding the practice of environmentally responsible behavior leads to the promotion of more significant participation in waste management efforts and contributes more effectively to such practices. It is important to develop transparency in receiving and dispensing money allotted to willingness-to-pay (WTP) programs [4]. Timely and regular follow-up and reporting on the status of the funds dispersed and their use in trash management would enhance public confidence in contributing financially towards initiatives that fight the trash menace. It has been established that integrating the informal trash sector into legitimized waste management systems is important in improving the efficiency and inclusiveness of waste management [28,54,55]. Recognition of the contributions of rubbish pickers and collectors and the payment of fair wages can go a long way to encourage better relations and togetherness. There is no question of the need to improve the waste disposal system in Bangladesh [3]. The need to develop a strong waste management system is due to the central importance of the protection of public health and the proper care of the environment in order to enhance sustainability [56,57,58]. The assessment of WTP in this study may prove beneficial in identifying the bounds of support and individuals’ willingness to contribute their finances to successful waste management undertakings [4]. The willingness to pay (WTP) for solutions to environmental and health concerns, as well as for the sustainable development of Bangladesh, ought to be encouraged using proper evaluation techniques and by adopting approaches that would otherwise not be followed for certain goals. These sampling techniques involve the interaction of many stakeholders, and public participation has a pivotal and decisive role in formulating a suitable and feasible waste management policy and strategy for a more environment-friendly and economically prosperous Bangladesh. The situation reverses sadly for the urban areas of Bangladesh, where the average uncollected solid waste reaches up to 55%; bucket collection efficiency ranges between 37 and 77%. This uncollected waste, especially plastics and polyethylene or polythene materials, ends up in drainages or water sources, causing the blockage of drains or polluting the surface and underground water, soil, and air. As already seen, Dhaka, like other megacities of the world, has also experienced the negative impacts of this development, and the water channels around Dhaka city and even those inside the city are increasingly becoming uninhabitable for human and aquatic life. This is one of the major causes of the country’s waste management crisis due to inadequate waste segregation. There is still a sense of inadequacy in solving this problem, although there are well-known global waste management approaches, namely the 3R approach (reduce, reuse, recycle) [52]. In this way, many container glasses or plastic bottles that are usually thrown into dustbins are recycled annually, highly contributing to market value. Also, waste composting can be made because 70% of waste is organic and cannot be burnt but can be turned into fertilizer. In addition, utilizing organic fertilizers addresses food security by increasing the yields of crops. It also reduces the use of chemical fertilizers by a striking 47 percent, thus reducing greenhouse gases [59,60,61]. Nonetheless, waste collection and recycling in Bangladesh are performed chiefly by street sweepers and rag pickers, who are mostly poor. On the other hand, the formal sector, characterized by organized and big businesses, has failed to meet this important need and has neglected this important aspect of waste recycling for several reasons, such as land scarcity and high population density in the country. Even though 9 out of 12 city corporations in Bangladesh possess designated dumping grounds for municipal solid waste, problems regarding landfill management still exist. The absence of qualified landfill operation and management units has led to the development of simple crude dumpsites and ineffective waste disposal with little or no provisions for sanitary measures. Such sites have been occupied by humans over the years, and this carries health and ecological implications. Similar issues are felt in municipalities such as Cox’s Bazar, where the approximate number of people is 0. Around ten thousand three hundred and fifty-nine tankers have discharged 3 million tons of waste in open-air crude dumpsites in the last eight years since 2010, and the leachate poses the threat of polluting the nearby rivers. According to Eurostat for 2022, the total collection and disposal of municipal waste per capita in the EU were slightly lower by 19 kg compared to those in 2021 at 513 kg per person; however, they were 46 kg more compared to the values of 1995. However, the overall tonnage of recycled materials was lower compared to the rate three years ago since the recycling rate per capita declined by 17 kg and averaged 249 kg per head. Waste generation is at its highest level in nations such as Austria, Denmark, and Luxembourg, where quantities have risen to 827 kg, 787 kg, and 720 kg per capita, respectively. In the lower end of the waste generation scale, Romania, Poland, Estonia, and Hungary amount to between 301 kg and 373 kg per capita. These differences can be due to changes in consumption habits, economic development, and the accessibility of proper waste disposal facilities in different countries. Such high inequality in the collection and disposal of household and waste from the commerce, trade, and administration sectors causes such differences on an international scale [27,62,63]. In Dhaka, over 55% of waste remains uncollected, underscoring the need for behaviorally informed interventions. Austria takes the lead in recycling, followed by Denmark and Germany; each citizen disposes of 516 kg, 411 kg, and 409 kg of trash, respectively. On the other hand, Romania, Malta, and Greece occupy lower positions in terms of recycling, averaging only between 36 kg and 90 kg per head. These statistics are worrying given that the European Commission stated that some EU member states risk missing multiple recycling targets, including those for municipal and packaging waste for 2025 and 2035, respectively. The latest assessments indicate that countries like Estonia, Finland, France, Ireland, Latvia, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden will likely fail to achieve the municipal waste target based on current trends. Moreover, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Hungary, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia are among the countries that are likely to fail to meet both the municipal waste and the packaging waste targets. The EU’s recycling rate serves as a comparative benchmark, although contextual differences make direct comparisons limited. Regarding marine debris and plastic waste reduction, companies that have agreed to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s New Plastics Economy Global Commitment on reusable, recyclable, or compostable packaging by 2025 are ‘off course.’ Also, the annual installed plastics recycling capacity in Europe, which dropped gradually with a growth rate of 7% in 2022, reaching 12.5 million tons, might make it difficult for the continent to meet legislative aims, as highlighted by Plastics Recyclers Europe [27,42,64].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. The Study Area

This research was conducted in Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Khulna, and Sylhet. These are primary urban centers in Bangladesh. These locations were intentionally chosen due to their proximity to contemporary urbanization and due to other circumstances. Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is the largest metropolis in the country. Chittagong is commonly referred to as the economic hub of Bangladesh. All these cities engage in corporate activities that include their citizens, and they possess the typical attributes of an urban environment. The field of inquiry was associated with adequately developed road networks and access to electricity and water primarily sourced from wells and boreholes. The region is characterized by its access to contemporary amenities, including telecommunication services, radio broadcasts, medical facilities, television networks, and print media. Additionally, it is influenced by numerous universities, educational institutions, and corporate establishments. The region is situated within the spectrum of low and high-density categorization.

3.2. Data Collection

This study employed a multistage simple random sampling technique to select the necessary sample. In the initial phase, the cities were partitioned into five distinct zones. A questionnaire was administered via face-to-face interviews, ensuring the inclusivity of participants without access to the Internet or digital devices. However, the use of face-to-face methods may introduce interviewer bias, which should be minimized through standardization protocols. A cumulative sum of 30 zones was obtained throughout the six cities. In the subsequent phase of sampling, a total of 50 households were selected randomly. A sample size of 250 respondents was recruited from each town. The whole sample size employed in this study amounted to 1500. The participants of this study consisted of household heads and landlords who were interviewed. The research instrument used in this study was a structured questionnaire. This study gathered primary data of a cross-sectional nature to examine individuals’ willingness to pay for enhanced environmental quality. In addition, information regarding socioeconomic and demographic attributes was gathered. The dataset underwent reduction to 1470 cases because of inadequate or mismatched information found within six observations. Bidding games were conducted with all participants. Each participant was queried regarding their willingness to pay for the service, considering a variety of monthly tariffs derived from the prevailing average monthly fees charged by private enterprises. Following the methodology proposed [65], the bidding process commenced with bids at the extreme ends of the spectrum, either the lowest or the highest, and subsequently progressed towards the center if the designated values were BDT 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, and 500.

3.3. Data Analysis

The data underwent analysis through the application of a descriptive statistical analysis and logit model. The model specification was derived from the studies conducted by Hanemann [66], Park et al. [67], and Yu et al. [68].

• Logit model specification

The willingness-to-pay query is structured as a binary selection between individuals willing to pay and those not. The utilization of a qualitative choice model is warranted, as suggested by previous studies [66,68]. The logit model is frequently utilized in these investigations [69,70,71]. In this study, the logit model was employed to evaluate the impact of the independent variables on the likelihood of the respondent’s willingness to pay.

• Mean WTP

The enumerator asked the respondents “yes” or “no” questions about their willingness to pay (WTP) to estimate their WTP in this study. This study obtained a particular monetary value for “yes” responses using the threshold decision-making theory to estimate their WTP [66]. Reactions from the respondent’s WTP figures can be averaged to estimate WTP, as seen in the example below (Table 1).

$$WTP={\displaystyle \frac{\sum Ti}{N}}$$

(1)

where Ti = the maximum WTP by respondent.

N = sample size.

Table 1. Methodological framework.

Step	Description
1. Sampling	Multistage random sampling of households across seven major cities in Bangladesh.
2. Questionnaire Design	Structured survey designed to capture socio-demographic data and willingness to pay (WTP).
3. Data Collection	Face-to-face interviews conducted with 1470 respondents to ensure inclusiveness.
4. Logit Model	Econometric modeling used to identify significant predictors of WTP.
5. Analysis	Statistical analysis performed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression.

Table 1. Methodological framework.

Step	Description
1. Sampling	Multistage random sampling of households across seven major cities in Bangladesh.
2. Questionnaire Design	Structured survey designed to capture socio-demographic data and willingness to pay (WTP).
3. Data Collection	Face-to-face interviews conducted with 1470 respondents to ensure inclusiveness.
4. Logit Model	Econometric modeling used to identify significant predictors of WTP.
5. Analysis	Statistical analysis performed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression.

3.4. Econometric Modeling

We attempted to identify a few socioeconomic factors in the case study on WTP for better SWM in Bangladesh, and choice models were employed to examine how the selected factors influenced the WTP. The linear probability model is like a regression equation to help demonstrate or predict probabilities between varied parameters. These models are called linear probability, binary logit, and probit models. There are two types of probability models: logit and probit. In a binary linear probability model, the estimated probability of the dependent variable is outside of the range 0≤ p ≤ 1 [72]. Most of the studies on WTP for better waste management services used either a probit model [73,74,75,76] or a logit model [77,78,79,80,81] to discover the factors that influence WTP for better SWM [24]. Probit and logit models are two different types of models [56,57]. Each case greatly differs in how the error term is spread out. In the logit model, the error term is thought to keep up with the standard logistic distribution. In the probit model, the error term is supposed to adhere to the standard normal distribution. With this slight difference, binary logit is better than binary probit because it is easier to understand and use in math. Following this, a binary logit model was used to determine the likelihood of people paying more for better waste management services as a function of the independent variables (x).

Because household heads were willing to pay more for better waste management services, this study used the threshold decision-making theory [82] to determine why. At some point, a person cannot decide to pay more for better waste management. The things that comprise this threshold determine how high this level should be. At the threshold, though, it is assumed that the stimulus causes something.

$$Y_i={\beta x}_i+{\mathsf{\mu }}_i$$

(2)

The above equation states that when people are willing to pay for better waste management services, Yi = 1, and if they do not, Yi = 0. Equation (2) is a binary choice model in which the probability of WTP for better waste management services ‘Y’ is estimated as a function of the independent variable’s ‘X.’ Mathematically, this is shown as

$$P_i\left(y_i\ne 0I{X}_i\right)={\displaystyle \frac{exp\left(X_i\beta \right)}{1+exp\left(X_i\beta \right)}}$$

(3)

where

i = 1, 2, 3, … n.

Pi = is the expected likelihood of a given option being made by the person i.

βi = is an undefined parameter vector, and X is a vector of explanatory variables representing the individual’s characteristics and choices that are supposed to affect the respective option. Equation (3) shows the approximate conditional logic models. Binary choice modeling makes it easier to examine the results.

The theoretical structure was investigated with the help of Stata version 15. First, the measurement model was used to test the validity and reliability of the model. Then, the later statistical model was used to analyze the model’s fit and the validity of the hypothesis.

The reason for favoring the latter specification for discrete choice contingent valuation (CV) responses is its advantage of eliminating negative estimates for willingness to pay (WTP). This study demonstrated that a logarithmic specification performs better than the linear logit model. The model posits a hypothesis that the willingness to pay (WTP), represented as a binary dependent variable, is contingent upon many factors—the age of the household head, the household income, the educational attainment of the household head in years, gender, household size, monthly income, value of the asset, level of education, awareness about environmental issues, and awareness about climate change issues. Other controlled variables were included. Variables were selected based on previous studies by Afroz et al. [31] and Rahman [33], emphasizing socioeconomic determinants of WTP in South Asia. The monetary worth of the service to the participant was expressed as the mean in Bangladeshi Taka (BDT), and a generic representation was established, where 1 = male head of the family, and 0 = female head of the family. From the respondents’ dataset, 798 were male household heads, representing 75% of the total sample size. On the other hand, 271 females or landladies represented 25% of the sample size.

4. Results

The following are some of the test variables that were selected: the analysis results of the differences in several major socioeconomic characteristics between the respondents who have shown concerns in paying for private service delivery agents and those not, as presented in

Table 2. The demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents.

		Willing to Pay (WTP)		Unwilling to Pay
Variable		Frequency	Percentage	Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	798	74.65	244	73.94
	Female	271	25.35	86	26.06
Age	20–24	54	5.05	68	20.61
	25–29	47	4.40	58	17.58
	30–34	176	16.46	90	27.27
	35–39	493	46.12	89	26.97
	40–More	299	27.97	25	7.58
Monthly Income BDT (USD)	15 K–20 K (120–165)	29	2.71	55	16.67
	21 K–25 K (121–205)	85	7.95	89	26.97
	26 K–30 K (206–250)	282	26.38	80	24.24
	31 K–35 K (210–290)	481	45.00	83	25.15
	36 K–More (300 More)	192	17.96	23	6.97
Level of Education	Primary	23	2.15	83	25.15
	Secondary	45	4.21	36	10.91
	Higher Secondary	224	20.95	80	24.24
	Graduate	514	48.05	76	23.03
	Postgraduate	263	24.60	55	16.67
Household Size	2	138	12.91	35	10.61
	3	496	46.40	168	50.91
	4	395	36.95	111	33.64
	5	36	3.37	12	3.64
	6	4	0.37	4	1.21
Value of the Asset BDT (USD)	0–50 K (0–400)	0	0	12	3.64
	51 K–100 K (401–825)	0	0	41	12.42
	101 K–150 K (826–1240)	2	0.19	86	26.06
	151 K–200 K (1241–1650)	177	16.56	56	16.97
	201 K–250 K (1650–2066)	369	34.52	63	19.09
	251 K–More (2070 More)	521	48.74	72	21.82

below. The table analyzes demographic and socioeconomic characteristics related to the respondents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for a proper waste management system in Bangladesh. This table clearly describes the different attributes’ differential demographic and socioeconomic status between being willing and unwilling to pay for private service delivery. Overall, these results provide helpful insight into the factors that can prompt individuals to budget to contribute financially to service delivery. Let us delve into a discussion based on the data presented in the table. This is manifested through emerging trends evident from the above data that show males as more willing to pay compared to females, where 74.65% of the individuals willing to pay are male and just 25.35% are female.

On the other hand, when respondents indicated they were unlikely to ever pay for the content, there seemed to be an approximate parity in gender. The above differences might indicate some sociocultural practices and economic differences that could have made the male partners have higher decision-making capabilities regarding services in comparison to their female counterparts. The same applies to the prevalence of significant subgroups by age; it is also somewhat different in the two groups. Target consumers likely to part with their money were found in relatively older age ranges of 35–39 and 40+ years, contributing 46.12% and 27.97% of the sample, respectively.

On the other hand, significant differences were recorded among those not willing to pay; the average age was also considerably lower, with most falling within the age group of 20–29 years. This may imply that some people are in different life stages, have other priorities, and have different financial capabilities to use paid services.

An outlook of the socioeconomic details of the respondents based on the year 2009 is supplied. Pay-as-you-go consumers are those who earn below BDT 10,000 per month, while those earning between BDT 10,001 and 30,000 are freemium consumers, and those earning above BDT 30,000 per month are categorized as premium consumers. Pay-as-you-go refers to households earning <10,000 BDT, freemium is 10,000–30,000 BDT, and premium is >30,000 BDT/month. A significant relationship was established between willingness to pay and income, where people with higher incomes, especially those earning between BDT 31,000 and BDT 35,000 and BDT 36,000 and above, were found to be willing to pay for private service delivery. On the other hand, decent consumers with low-income earnings, with income levels of 15,000 to 20,000 and 21,000 to 25,000, exhibited a higher probability of declining financial obligations. Even more influential in this case is the level of education that people attain since, in general, it determines how receptive people are to the concept of paying higher prices for any product. This study revealed that postgraduates and graduates exhibited a positive attitude toward willingness to pay for services compared to those with primary or secondary education. It is worth mentioning that the descriptive characteristics of the households concerning the population size demographic, particularly the household size demographic, are rather similar for both groups, with the most significant proportion being found to comprise three or four members.

That said, there seems to be an even higher proportion of a larger population who show reluctance to procure the service, indicating that family size may dictate the willingness to pay for the service. The above-identified significant predictors of willingness to pay include higher asset values with more focus on the 251 K-More category. The low-value population suggests that it is more likely that customers with fewer assets are unwilling to invest in paid services, which can contribute to the correlation between wealth status and the use of paid services.

The Municipality/City Corporation Recycle Collector is a primary waste collection point in all cities, with high utilization rates. Regarding the sample distribution, Rajshahi has 188 participants, Dhaka has 206 participants, Chattogram has 117 respondents, Sylhet has 104, Khulna has 121 respondents, Rangpur has 93 participants, and Barisal has 109 participants. Empty plots are also commonly used for waste disposal, indicating informal dumping practices. The questionnaires were distributed among 387 respondents collected from Rajshahi (30 respondents), Dhaka (66 respondents), Chattogram (51 respondents), Sylhet (72 respondents), Khulna (37 respondents), Rangpur (78 respondents), and Barisal (27 respondents). Recycling collection points, highway shoulders, and private farms are also sites of constrained usage across different cities with fewer dispositions. Conclusively, although the Municipality/City Corporations EWC intervention is common, informal disposal sites like the empty plots throughout the surveyed cities are frequently utilized.

Table 3. Disposal areas in different cities.

Disposal Area	Rajshahi	Dhaka	Chattogram	Sylhet	Khulna	Rangpur	Barisal	Total
Municipality/City Corporation Recycle Collector	188	206	117	104	121	93	109	938
Empty Plots	30	66	51	72	37	78	27	361
Highway Shoulders	1	2	0	8	3	3	1	18
Recycle Collector	7	8	0	12	9	3	1	40
Private Farm	6	3	2	7	3	3	0	24
Drainage	4	2	0	6	2	4	0	18
Total	236	287	170	209	175	184	138	1399

provides a comparative analysis of the willingness to pay (WTP) for better waste management in Bangladesh, delineating the monthly payment amounts in Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) for two groups: consumers who, out of their willingness to pay for the product, would be willing to pay an additional amount for this service and those that would not be willing to do so.

The first column of

Table 4. Frequency distribution of the respondents for their WTP.

	Willing to Pay (WTP)		Unwilling to Pay
Price/Month BDT (USD)	Yes	Percentage	No	Percentage
100 (0.80)	2	0.19	13	3.94
150 (1.25)	6	0.56	58	17.58
200 1.65)	141	13.19	146	44.34
250 (2.06)	296	27.69	73	22.12
300 (2.47)	187	17.49	29	8.79
350 (2.89)	223	20.86	7	2.12
400 (3.30)	43	4.02	2	0.61
450 (3.71)	108	10.10	2	0.61
500 (4.13)	63	5.89	0	0

represents the monthly payment amounts in BDT that people were willing to pay for enhanced waste management services. The second column, on the other hand, shows that people do not want to pay, but no numbers are cited for the monthly payment amount. Of those willing to pay, the distribution of the payment amount in BDT per month is quite significant, with a range of BDT 100 to BDT 500. The most significant proportion of individuals willing to pay is identified in the BDT 250 category, comprising 296 respondents (27.69%). Significant percentages are observed in the BDT 200 and BDT 300 groups, with 141 (13.19%) and 187 (17.49%) respondents, respectively. There is a progressive reduction in the percentage of respondents as the monthly payment amount is raised from BDT 250 to BDT 500.

On the other hand, among those not willing to pay, there is no reported willingness to pay to improve the services in waste management across all categories of monthly payments. This group of respondents has a larger representation than the willing-to-pay group, and most of the respondents were not willing to pay. Table 4 also shows the number of households willing to subscribe to the service at different price points. When asked at what rate, for BDT 100 per month, every household (100%) responded affirmatively, saying they were willing to pay for the service. About 74% of the households responded affirmatively to the monthly payment of BDT 150. The rate of positive responses declined by sixty-three percent a month when the amount was raised to BDT 250. About 48 percent of the participants were willing to spend twenty BDT per month. From the findings of this study, it is evident that as the cost of the service rises, there is a reduction in the percentage of the population willing to pay. The evidence shows that the price of the service directly affects the number of participants, with a smaller number of people agreeing to pay for the service when the price is higher. The logit model was employed to discover the determinants influencing individuals’ willingness to pay for the service.

A Pearson chi-squared (χ²) statistic was used to assess the adequacy of fit of the model. The likelihood ratio value was 226.3052, which exceeded the critical values of 124.3420 and 135.8070 at the 5% and 1% significance levels, respectively. The results of this test suggested that the vector of coefficients of the elements in the model exhibited a statistically significant deviation from zero, with significance levels of 5% and 1% correspondingly. The default value p served as an additional measure for assessing the adequacy of fit. A value of p less than 0.15 indicated a lack of fit. A model exhibited satisfactory fit if the p-value was greater than or equal to 0.15.

Since the obtained p value was 0.6315, we could conclude that the points were well dispersed, so the model was a good fit. The t-test for individual factors is depicted in

Table 5. The results of logistic regression for a better waste management system in Bangladesh.

Variables	Coefficients	Odd Ratio	t-Statistics	p-Value
Constant	−9.19	0.00	−12.25	0.000
Gender	−0.03	0.97	−0.15	0.879
Household Size	0.10	1.10	0.91	0.361
Monthly Income	0.30	1.35	3.41	0.000
Value of the Asset	1.19	3.31	13.72	0.000
Level of Education	0.37	1.45	4.45	0.000
Awareness of Environmental Issues	1.27	3.56	4.39	0.000
Awareness about Climate Change Issues	1.33	3.79	7.16	0.000
LR Chi2	595.35
Pro > chi2	0.000
Pseudo R2	0.3895
Log Likelihood	−466.58

, following the steps for testing the significance of the personal factors. The t-ratio was determined using the formula t = parameters/SE, where the standard errors are presented in brackets (see Table 5). The statistical results of the logit analysis showed that the age of the respondents, the average money people were willing to pay, and the type of collector was significant and negatively affected the willingness to pay. The coefficients of the t-ratios of the variables revealed age as statistically significant, with a t = 2.255162 level of significance at 10 percent, while the average quantity and kind of collector were substantial, with a t = −5.222332 level of importance at 1 percent. The results of the logistic regression test were expected to reveal which factors positively influenced the probability of people supporting a better waste management system in Bangladesh. The intercept presented here (−9.19) represents the outcome when all the predicting variables equal zero. When other predictors of the model are absent, the odds ratio of 0.00 indicates that a relationship is improbable to support better waste management. The coefficient of gender, which is −0.03, implies that gender has very little influence. Therefore, there are no statistically meaningful odds of supporting better waste management in Bangladesh for different genders. The odds of support for better waste management are slightly lower among males, with an odds ratio of 0.97; however, the result is not significant (p > 0.05) 0.879.

The positive coefficient (0.27) of household size, more so in larger households, increases the likelihood of supporting better waste management (odds = 1.31) but is statistically insignificant (p = 0.727). The result revealing monthly income as significant (p < 0.1) and with a greater effect size of 0.30 suggests that monthly income can predict a person supporting better waste management, as those with higher monthly incomes have greater odds (odds ratio = 1.35). On further analysis, the significance level is deficient, so it can be concluded that paid workers are more inclined to agree to improved waste management, with a significance level of = 0.000. The coefficient of value of asset (0.19) shows the direct and significant impact of asset value on support to improvements in waste management (OR: 3.31). However, the variance analysis revealed that asset values are significantly related to attitude towards improved waste management (F = 167.834, p = 0.000). The level of education has a moderate, positive relationship with better support for waste management, with the level of education having an effect size of 0.37; this means that better levels of education are positively related to better waste management support, as captured by an odds ratio of 1.45. Thus, the results show a statistically significant difference, with the coefficient of the education level being equal to 4.10 (p = 0.000), which means that people with higher education support upgrading waste management systems. Further stratified analysis was conducted among respondents with higher education (graduate and above) to assess the variation in WTP across income levels. The results showed that income remained a significant predictor, confirming that the effect of education on WTP is not merely due to income differences. The coefficient of 1.27 for awareness about environmental issues shows that awareness about environmental questions has a positive and significant effect on enhanced support for better waste disposition (odds ratio = 3.56).

Regarding the fourth hypothesis concerning service satisfaction (

Table 6. The validation of each hypothesis tested.

Hypothesis	Validation (Statistical and Literature)	Validation (Survey Findings)
H1: Education level affects WTP	✔ Fully verified	✔ Confirmed
H2: Environmental attitude affects WTP	✔ Fully verified	✔ Confirmed
H3: Climate change awareness affects WTP	✔ Fully verified	✔ Confirmed
H4: Income level affects WTP	✔ Fully verified	✔ Confirmed
H5: Gender has an effect on WTP	✔ Not verified	✔ Confirmed

Source: author’s own estimation from the result.

), the analysis showed statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups (F = 437.094; p = 0.000). Likewise, knowledge of climate change makes a positive and statistically significant contribution to support improved waste management, Co = 1.33, OR = 3.79, p = 0.000. The fit of the overall model was established using the likelihood ratio chi-square test (Chi² = 595.35), which is significant (p < 0.001), thus implying that this study’s model has a considerable ability to explain the variables, hence the outcome. The calculated p-value of pseudo-R squared equal to 0.3895 means that the model explains around 38.95 percent of the variation in the probability of supporting better waste management.

5. Discussion

Apparent socioeconomic differences exist between individuals who are either willing or reluctant to pay for private service delivery. People who are likely to pay are males who are more advanced in age, have a better salary, have a good education, and have better asset values than others. On the other hand, individuals who are reluctant to pay are more likely to be female, be younger, earn lower salaries, be less educated, and have low asset values. From these highlighted findings, more considerations must be made considering demographics and socioeconomics in order to implement robust and viable service delivery mechanisms. These signify significant implications for service delivery organizations and policymakers. A quantitative/qualitative examination of consumers’ characteristics or determinants of willingness to pay may provide policymakers, market strategists, and marketers with the right tools to launch feasible marketing plans, set appropriate prices, or implement relevant public policies that aim to encourage equal access to essential services. In addition, addressing the root causes of income and education disparities and asset ownership at the community level can help enhance a community’s socioeconomic status and make the benefits of services accessible to all groups across the social demographic divide. These findings are consistent with those of Afroz et al. [7], who found income and education to be strong predictors of WTP in Dhaka.

The Municipality/City Corporation Recycle Collector service may be defined as the most essential garbage collecting channel, highlighting how official waste management is increasingly important. An average of 61 percent of the people selected in all analyzed cities relied on this official garbage disposal service. A well-articulated garbage collection system is essential for improving the increasing problem of urban waste management. Organized garbage collection services are available. Still, abandoned plots for garbage disposal continue to be utilized, implying an ongoing reliance on informal waste disposal systems. This points to a lack of waste disposal facilities or knowledge, and companies often resort to using landfills. As such, it is crucial to assertively combat these informal waste disposal methods to curb the effects of environmental pollution and public health risks associated with poor garbage dumping practices. While curbs on 3RS garbage collection services are helpful, controlling such dumping methods requires a more holistic approach. Measures should include the provision of official garbage collection services, the formation of public awareness campaigns on the proper method of disposing waste, and zero tolerance for anyone dumping waste in any unauthorized manner. Also, incorporating funds into trash treatment and recycling facilities will help overcome the exploitation of landfills and increase the possibility of recovering valuable technical goods. As described above, the variations in disposal methods among cities underline the fact that efficient waste management demands are local and will require the integration of socioeconomic and infrastructural characteristics of respective regions. Despite the fact that some canyons of effectiveness can be found in one city, it seems that interventions are different in other places, underlining the value of city-specific, one-fits-all approaches. A strategic collaboration of local governments, community organizations, and other stakeholders is essential in implementing sound waste management policies and strategies.

Changes in WTP sums led to the participants’ level of commitment differing significantly. While a sizeable number of the respondents could not afford to contribute more than BDT 50 monthly, a tiny fraction of the respondents were willing to contribute lesser amounts, including 0.19% for BDT 100 each month, and a more significant majority of the respondents wanted to contribute amounts of BDT 200 to BDT 350. This range was chosen because it includes all the respondents willing to pay for the product and is nearly 60% of the total number of respondents. The distribution also shows people’s readiness to spend more where waste management services are better, indicating their recognition of the importance of proper garbage disposal and environmental friendliness. Such willingness to contribute their resources shows that improved waste management programs can be undertaken, thanks to support from the public. As is evidenced from the data, there are disparities in the WTP band across a given income level. People with higher TDAs are willing to pay relatively higher fees to boost the efficiency of waste management services. Still, those with low TDAs might experience difficulties meeting new fees. These aspects must be addressed to fight economic inequality and guarantee equal opportunities for improving the service. One of this study’s limitations is the potential multicollinearity among variables such as income, asset value, and education. While the logit model assumes independence, future studies should apply variance inflation factor (VIF) diagnostics or structural equation modeling to parse these relationships.

Consequently, the logistic regression study analysis conducted provides insights into the factors that determine support for better waste management in Bangladesh. In the context of the waste management challenges that Bangladesh is facing, such findings bear significant implications. The value of their assets and their level of education also show how people are more inclined to support an issue depending on how prosperous or fortunate they are in life. Policymakers must focus on practices that would try to upgrade economic opportunities and education standards to acquire more support and increase the application of better methods in waste management. The potential benefits from bettering waste management, which arise from increasing knowledge concerning environmental and climate change issues, illustrate the importance of ecological education and campaigning. This is because, learning from past environmental and health calamities, informed attempts to enlighten the public on inadequacies in waste management methods can garner popular support for implementing legislative actions and behavioral changes. While informal actors are often blamed for inefficiencies, they play a crucial role in recycling and should be integrated formally into the system [83,84]. In turn, authorities should address these problems by fostering executive and legislative measures to mitigate socioeconomic disparities, spread knowledge of environmental issues, and enhance climate change literacy among Bangladeshi citizens. Investing in infrastructural developments and recycling centers and organizing more awareness programs can improve the sustainable waste management capacity of Bangladesh and strengthen its environmental conservation undertakings. Given the dominance of informal waste disposal on empty plots in Dhaka and Rajshahi, tailored interventions such as localized collection hubs and incentivized segregation at the household level may be more impactful than generic PPP models. This moves past separating consumers just by how much they are willing to pay. When we learn about the reasons behind financial help for waste services, building fair and efficient management systems becomes easier. The results can guide municipal policymakers to create fee-based service models that are simple and inexpensive to use. For instance, since WTP responds strongly to education and environmental awareness, we see that special educational efforts are worthwhile. Thanks to identifying income-based WTP thresholds, authorities can create different types of pricing or cross-subsidies to let lower-income households participate. As a result, our findings offer crucial facts to guide the country’s urban waste policies rather than only supporting company marketing [83,84,85,86]. In conclusion, this study is concerned with the multifaceted and diverse problems associated with waste in the study area of Bangladesh. For this reason, it is essential to implement proper prevention and control measures that will include the provision of both economic and social integration with the overall development programs, environmental awareness, and mobilization, alongside policy measures in promoting sustainable waste management and the enhancement of the general ecological status.

6. Conclusions

The hypotheses presented in this study sought to investigate the socio-demographic factors that influence individuals’ willingness to pay (WTP) for enhanced waste management in metropolitan areas, with a specific focus on Bangladesh. These assumptions are essential for comprehending the elements that impact public attitudes and behaviors toward waste management programs. This knowledge, in turn, will guide policies and intervention measures that attempt to promote sustainable practices. The initial hypothesis suggested that the education level does not substantially impact the willingness to pay for improved trash management in urban Bangladesh. This hypothesis is based on the premise that education may not necessarily be associated with environmental awareness or concern for waste management concerns in the specific context of a developing nation such as Bangladesh. The research results indicate a strong positive correlation between higher levels of education and willingness to pay for enhanced trash management. This discovery suggests that people with higher education standards are more likely to support efforts to strengthen waste management through acknowledging, understanding, and possessing correct information on the effects of improper waste management on the environment. Likewise, it was hypothesized in the second and third hypotheses that there are no significant similarities in the environmental points of view and perceptions of climate change and WTP of people regarding enhanced waste management in urban Bangladesh. These hypotheses considered the influence of environmental consciousness and concern regarding climate change on the individual propensity to contribute to improvements to waste disposal. Effective regulation plays a key role in increasing public willingness to pay (WTP) for waste services by promoting transparency, accountability, and consistent service quality. In countries like Bangladesh, regulatory systems can help set fair pricing, define performance standards, and create avenues for cross-subsidization. Output-based regulation boosts efficiency and builds consumer trust in public utilities. Adopting such approaches could strengthen public confidence and encourage greater engagement with formal waste management services.

We pointed out that accurate knowledge of the immediate environment and a genuine concern for climate change positively affect the willingness to pay for better waste disposal services. This discovery is crucial in raising awareness of environmental situations that confront climate change, and it eventually will shape people’s perception of proper waste management techniques in developing countries [87].

In the same view, the fourth hypothesis stated that the income level of the respondents had no effect on their WTP in urban Bangladesh. This hypothesis originated from the consideration that, due to high inequality in the distribution of income, socioeconomic status only has a limited impact on people’s willingness to spend on waste management enhancements. However, when comparing the results, it was evident that there was a considerable positive relationship between the asset value/income level and WTP for improved waste management programs. Considering these values, however, it became evident that those most likely to support measures in addressing waste management problems were those with a higher socioeconomic status, perhaps because they can afford the costs of financing waste management initiatives. The last hypothesis was that there was no significant difference in the WTP of male and female respondents regarding electricity in the chosen regions in Bangladesh. According to this hypothesis, gender could play a role in how each person perceived waste and recycling and their willingness to contribute financially to improving the situation. However, this study failed to establish a strong relationship between gender and WTP for waste management enhancements, meaning that the gender factor must not be very influential in determining the amount consumers are willing to pay for waste management enhancements in the urban areas of Bangladesh.

Comparing the findings with the background of industrialized countries where advanced waste management facilities and high standards of environmental consciousness are expected, one can learn a lot. Other factors like educational level, environmental viewpoint, income level, and gender can still influence the willingness to pay (WTP) for waste management enhancements in industrialized countries. Indeed, one might say that depending on the circumstances and conditions, these effects may be extended and may act in different directions. For instance, there are more powerful environmental movements in developed countries with higher levels of knowledge, and education trends may even be more distinctly reflected in WTP. In these cases, people exhibit a higher awareness of environmental factors and commit themselves to preserving the environment. Likewise, WTP may vary regarding the income level, as, for instance, higher-income consumers would likely spend more money on improvement in waste management, given their surplus money and environmental awareness.

Moreover, several international collaborations and projects centered on information exchange are beneficial for the shared dissemination of successful practices and remarkable findings regarding waste management and would strengthen global efforts to attain environmental responsibility. While this study focuses on WTP, alternative mechanisms such as municipal taxation and national budget reallocations are also viable options, especially in low-income settings.

In conclusion, this study highlights the reciprocal nexus between socio-demographic factors and people’s willingness to spend on improving trash management in Metropolitan Bangladesh. Thus, understanding the context within which such knowledge has been generated from the current study and other developing nations or industrialized nations may provide helpful information about the contextual factors that may affect perceptions of waste management and the implications for policy formation and intervention strategies. These findings can help develop targeted strategies that enhance sustainable waste management behaviors and ensure an environmental sustainability agenda for the local community and the global world. Governments, service providers, and societies must develop a cohesive plan to overcome the prevalent waste management challenges in Bangladesh. Civil society needs to understand the many issues related to waste and waste management. Moreover, there is a requirement for specific legislative measures, sound infrastructure for waste management, and public awareness. This way, by managing a significant portion of waste, reducing hazardous dumping practices, and helping people understand the issue with e-waste, Bangladesh can look forward to a neater, safer, and less threatening future for the environment.

• Recommendations and Policy Implications

Service providers and policymakers should tailor marketing strategies and pricing models based on demographics, in addition to socioeconomic factors influencing individuals’ WTP. By implementing these policy implications, Bangladesh can address its waste management challenges effectively while promoting sustainable development and environmental conservation efforts. This study suggests the following policies:

(1) Public Awareness Campaigns: One way to boost willingness to pay (WTP) for improved waste management is to conduct broad public awareness campaigns. These efforts emphasize the importance of appropriate waste management for sustainability, public health, and economic expansion. To guarantee more reach and impact, government agencies can lead these initiatives in conjunction with environmental non-governmental organizations.

(2) Education and Training Programs: Funding for educational and training initiatives that target professionals and the public alike can improve knowledge and aptitude for environmentally friendly waste management techniques. It is recommended that policymakers set aside funds for the creation of thorough training programs and workshops that cater to a range of stakeholders, including waste collectors, local government representatives, and community leaders. (3) Incentive Mechanisms: Providing tax breaks or other financial aid to individuals or companies that implement eco-friendly waste management techniques can encourage behavior modification and boost WTP. It is imperative for policymakers to devise incentives that are both financially viable and enduring, while also guaranteeing fair allocation among diverse socioeconomic groups. (4) Infrastructure Development: Improving waste management systems requires spending money on infrastructure for waste collection, segregation, recycling, and disposal. Policymakers should prioritize infrastructure development projects, assigning appropriate finances and resources for the building and upkeep of waste treatment facilities, landfill sites, and recycling centers. Implementing these projects can be made easier by working together with foreign donors, private sector organizations, and government authorities. (5) Infrastructure Development: Improving waste management systems requires spending money on infrastructure for waste collection, segregation, recycling, and disposal. Policymakers should prioritize infrastructure development projects, assigning appropriate finances and resources for the building and upkeep of waste treatment facilities, landfill sites, and recycling centers. Implementing these projects can be made easier by working together with foreign donors, private sector organizations, and government authorities.

The findings offer practical guidance for policymakers working to enhance urban waste management in Bangladesh: (1) Tiered Pricing Support: Since willingness to pay (WTP) rises notably with income, implementing progressive pricing or cross-subsidies could help make services more affordable for low-income households. (2) Environmental (3) Awareness Campaigns: The significant impact of environmental knowledge (OR = 3.56) indicates that focused education efforts could greatly increase WTP and boost household involvement. (4) Targeting by Assets: With asset value emerging as a strong predictor (OR = 3.31), using asset ownership as a stand-in measure could help identify households for premium services or targeted subsidies. (5) Collaboration with the Informal Sector: As informal collection remains prevalent, building partnerships between formal and informal providers could expand service access while keeping costs manageable.

• Future Research Directions:

More empirical studies are necessary to explore the behavioral factors influencing waste disposal behavior and their outcomes on the environment and communities. Observing the changing trends in infrastructure and waste management practices over time can be productive research, as the coupling of these interventions can be inferred. On the same note, cross-city studies advocate for understanding the measures that worked and those that did not in order to learn and replicate good results. Studies could also look to investigate what may affect a population’s inclinations to pay for waste management services. The decision of how much a consumer is willing to pay may be conditioned by education, awareness, perceived benefits, and confidence in service providers—all of which deserve further examination.