Integrating Socio-Demographic and Local Sustainability Indicators: Implications for Urban Health and Children’s Vulnerability in Henequén Neighborhood in Cartagena, Colombia

Abstract

This study integrates socio-demographic factors and local sustainability indicators to assess their implications for public health and social vulnerability in the Henequén neighborhood of Cartagena, Colombia. This historically marginalized community, primarily composed of women and displaced families, faces chronic exposure to environmental contaminants due to its past as a municipal landfill. Poor housing conditions, overcrowding, and inadequate access to water and sanitation services exacerbate health risks. Additionally, low educational attainment and limited economic opportunities contribute to cycles of poverty and illicit activities, disproportionately affecting children’s development. Using a cross-sectional and correlational approach, the study identifies key variables, such as housing conditions, access to basic services, and marital status, that shape social vulnerability. The findings are analyzed in the context of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). The study highlights critical gaps in sustainability efforts and provides a framework for assessing local progress toward achieving these global development objectives.

1. Introduction

Urbanization has led to over half the global population residing in cities in the 21st century, with projections indicating that this will rise to two-thirds by 2050, adding 2.5 billion to the current 4 billion urban dwellers [1]. This growth is predominantly occurring in developing countries where rapid expansion often surpasses the capabilities of formal planning and governance, leading to unplanned or inadequately managed urban areas [2]. Consequently, informal settlements and marginalized neighborhoods have proliferated, providing shelter for a large share of urban residents [3]. These areas often lack essential services, such as water, sanitation, and waste management, and pose significant challenges to public health, environmental sustainability, and social development [4]. In addition, it is recognized that poor housing conditions, economic vulnerability, and exposure to environmental hazards further intensify health risks and deepen social inequality, especially among low-income communities [5].

Children are among the most vulnerable populations affected by the rapid and uneven process of urbanization [6]. Slum environments, marked by overcrowding, inadequate housing, and limited access to basic services, create conditions that severely compromise child health and development [7]. Globally, over one billion people live in slum-like conditions, including an estimated 350 to 500 million children, and by 2050, nearly 70% of the world’s children are projected to reside in urban areas, many of them in informal settlements, refugee camps, or other precarious living environments [8]. In these settings, children face elevated risks of respiratory and waterborne diseases, malnutrition, and exposure to environmental contaminants [9]. The absence of reliable water and sanitation infrastructure, coupled with a high population density and chronic poverty, amplifies their vulnerability [10]. These structural deficits affect children’s health, education, and social development, reinforcing cycles of disadvantage as urban populations continue to grow. Despite this wealth of knowledge on urban vulnerability, more broadly, there remains a lack of studies that specifically examine how socio-demographic conditions intersect with local SDG targets in neighborhoods established on former landfill sites. This study addresses the lack of knowledge about how socio-demographic dynamics and local sustainability indicators converge in informal settlement scenarios built on former landfills, a context that has not been explored in detail in the environmental public health literature.

Although many cities have implemented actions aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), their impact has not been consistent across local contexts or social groups. Informal urban expansion often deepens social inequality, especially for children living in precarious environments [7]. While the SDGs, particularly Goals 3 (Health), 6 (Water and Sanitation), and 11 (Sustainable Cities), seek to address these interconnected issues, their top-down application frequently overlooks intra-urban disparities and fails to reflect local realities [11]. To address this gap, our core research question is as follows: How do the specific socio-demographic conditions of Henequén influence the local attainment of SDGs 3, 6, and 11, and what gaps persist relative to the national 2030 targets? By focusing our analysis on a former landfill site that has been transformed into an informal settlement, we provide original evidence on the fit of the SDG frameworks in highly contaminated and socially vulnerable urban contexts.

Recognizing that sustainable development challenges are best expressed at the local level, initiatives like Local Agenda 21 have encouraged municipalities to adopt context-specific strategies [12,13]. In this framework, sustainability indicators emerge as essential tools to monitor, evaluate, and inform urban policy with precision and equity [14]. These indicators, when integrated with socio-demographic data, enable governments to identify vulnerable populations, prioritize resources, and design targeted interventions [15]. Integrating equity-based, locally grounded indicators into urban policy is essential for prioritizing the most vulnerable populations and territories and for guiding sustainable, child-focused development [8].

The link between rapid urban expansion and child vulnerability is relevant in the Colombian context, where demographic and spatial trends mirror the global challenges of unplanned urbanization. Like many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Colombia has urbanized at an accelerated pace over recent decades [16]. In Colombia, the urban population has grown from 40% in 1951 to 78% by 2024, equivalent to approximately 34.7 million people, and is projected to reach 86% by 2050, with Medellín, Barranquilla, Bogotá, D.C., and Cartagena de Indias being the largest cities with the highest urbanization index [17]. As urban populations continue to grow, it is important to recognize that children and adolescents (ages 0–17) currently make up 28.4% of the national population, with even higher concentrations in certain regions, such as 32.3% in Bolívar and 27.3% in Cartagena [18], highlighting the need to integrate child-focused considerations into urban planning and policy development.

Cartagena de Indias, a coastal city globally recognized for its historical and cultural heritage in the Colombian Caribbean, also faces significant environmental challenges [19,20,21,22]. The phenomenon of informal urbanization is particularly evident in the Henequén neighborhood, where chronic exposure to soil, air, and water contaminants has contributed to a cycle of socio-economic and environmental challenges [23,24,25]. This area previously served as a municipal landfill from 1969 to 2010, receiving over 400,000 tons of solid waste annually [25,26]. Following the landfill’s closure, the sector was informally settled by families displaced by violence and economic crises in neighboring regions, as well as waste recyclers seeking livelihood opportunities [26].

The Henequén community is characterized by severe housing deficiencies, including overcrowding and the use of unsafe construction materials. Many households lack access to basic public services, particularly safe drinking water and sanitation, increasing their vulnerability to waterborne diseases and other public health risks. Additionally, limited access to education and employment opportunities has led to widespread economic precariousness, reinforcing cycles of poverty and increasing the likelihood of engagement in illicit activities, which further impact the well-being of children and youth in the area [27]. The environmental conditions of Henequén also pose significant risks. Unregulated waste management practices have led to the release of hazardous substances, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from electronic waste, heavy metals such as mercury, lithium, and cadmium, and biological hazards such as pathogenic microorganisms (e.g., Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Taenia spp.) [28,29,30,31,32]. Additionally, methane emissions from landfill leachates have led to sporadic explosions, further exacerbating the unsafe living conditions [33].

Beyond environmental and economic factors, social dynamics in Henequén contribute significantly to heightened vulnerability. The high prevalence of micro-trafficking, violence, and crime exposes children to increased risks of behavioral disorders and social exclusion. Previous studies in Cartagena have established a correlation between economic marginalization, exposure to violence, and involvement in illicit activities, underscoring the need for evidence-based interventions [26]. These conditions also carry mental health implications, particularly related to interpersonal and intrafamily violence, which further exacerbate the community’s social fragmentation. The informal nature of Henequén presents challenges to urban resilience, infrastructure development, and social inclusion.

Assessing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the local level is therefore critical for identifying gaps in urban sustainability and informing strategies to enhance community resilience and well-being [34]. Given the complex interplay between social vulnerability, environmental hazards, and economic exclusion, this study hypothesizes that socio-demographic conditions directly influence quality of life and exposure to risk, particularly among school-aged children. It seeks to identify correlations between limited access to opportunities, violent environments, and involvement in illicit activities, which may contribute to adverse behavioral patterns and weakened social cohesion. By analyzing family structures in relation to sustainability indicators, this research provides empirical insights to inform targeted interventions that reduce social vulnerability and support sustainable urban development.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Participants

The research is framed within a cross-sectional, correlational, and predictive design, with a population made up of families residing in the Henequén neighborhood, a former landfill in Cartagena de Indias (Colombia). The sample consisted of 158 families with children from 4 to 10 years old, students of the San Francisco de Asís Educational Institution, Pedro Pascasio Martínez-Henequén (IESFA). The inclusion criterion was the presence of minors enrolled in the educational institution and the signature of their legal guardians, indicating their informed consent. The general location is presented in Figure 1.

2.2. Questionnaire and Characterization

For data collection, a survey-type instrument was used, modified from a questionnaire validated by the Universidad del Sinú-Seccional Cartagena, designed for population characterization, whose instrument consisted of 61 questions, organized in four dimensions: family data (12 questions), housing conditions (14 questions), availability of public services (12 questions), and access to health services and health status of the respondent (23 questions). The project and the application of the survey were approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Universidad del Sinú-Seccional Cartagena, guaranteeing compliance with the principles of balance of benefits and risks. The absence of risks of violation of respect, as well as of physical or psychological harm was confirmed, ensuring the delivery and detailed explanation of all information on the study to the participants.

2.3. Local Sustainability Assessment

To systematically operationalize the convergence between socio-demographic factors and SDG targets 3, 6, and 11, we have developed a practical decision support framework consisting of three components:

Theoretical basis. Our model is based on the Social Determinants of Health (WHO CSDH) paradigm and the UNICEF Child Vulnerability approach, which justifies the integration of structural variables (e.g., family composition and educational level) with environmental indicators (e.g., access to water and soil pollutant load).

Methodological steps. These include (i) collection and validation of survey and GIS data; (ii) selection, normalization, and weighting of indicators according to their relevance to children and the environment; and (iii) calculation of a composite vulnerability index using multi-criteria analysis (Figure 2).

Practical Application. Overlaying vulnerability scores with urban maps allows planners and authorities to identify risk hotspots at the block level and prioritize SDG-aligned interventions.

This framework differs from other assessment tools in its emphasis on children (differential weighting of child health and education indicators) and its inclusion of metrics for exposure to contaminants specific to post-landfill contexts (e.g., heavy metals in soil).

To assess the alignment of local socio-demographic conditions with national progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the study incorporated a comparative analysis between the results obtained from the administered questionnaire and national-level indicators for selected SDGs. The analysis focused on specific indicators relevant to the social, economic, and environmental dimensions affecting the Henequén community. Data collected through the survey were compared with official national targets set for 2030. The selected SDGs for this comparison included Goal 1 (No Poverty), Goal 2 (Zero Hunger), Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being), Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), Goal 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), and Goal 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities). The local progress values were calculated based on the proportion of positive responses in the survey and compared against national targets.

For each selected SDG target, we defined a quantitative local indicator based on the questionnaire questions that reflect the access or condition assessed. For instance, “access to drinking water (SDG 6)” was indicated by the proportion of households with an affirmative response to the following question: “Does your home have a drinking water supply connected to the network?”

Other features we took into account were as follows: Access to sanitation (SDG 6): Proportion of households with an indoor bathroom that discharges into a managed sewer; Adequate housing (SDG 11): Proportion of households that simultaneously meet at least three infrastructure conditions: block or brick walls, a resistant sheet metal roof (zinc or Eternit), and a cement or ceramic floor; Social subsidy coverage (SDG 1): Proportion of households registered in the SISBEN (National Institute of Statistics and Census) and beneficiaries of the “Families in Action” programs; Food security (SDG 2): Proportion of households that report at least two meals a day; and Family planning (SDG 3): Proportion of women of reproductive age using modern contraceptive methods.

For each indicator, the number of favorable responses was divided by the total number of respondents (n = 158) and multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage. These percentages are presented as local indicators in

Table 1. Selected sustainable development goals and national goals for 2030.

Sustainable Development Goals		National Goal for 2030
	Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere	By 2030, implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all and achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable.
		By 2030, at least halve the proportion of men, women, and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions.
	Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture	By 2030, end hunger and ensure access for all people, particularly the poor and the vulnerable, including children under one year, to safe, nutritious, and sufficient food all year round.
	Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages	By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least 12 per 1000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least 25 per 1000 live births.
		By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information, and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programs.
	Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all	By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all.
		By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations.
	Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all	By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services.
	Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable	By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe, and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums.

and are discussed in the Results section.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

For data analysis, a Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) was used, allowing for the identification of dimensions that establish relationships between variables and determine significant associations. This statistical analysis was performed using absolute frequencies and percentages, while the estimation of the model fit was performed through an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), allowing the consistency of the identified associations to be evaluated.

3. Results and Discussion

The findings of this study underscore the multifaceted challenges that marginalized urban communities face in achieving sustainable development, particularly in the Henequén neighborhood of Cartagena. The socio-demographic conditions observed, marked by high levels of poverty, environmental hazards, and inadequate access to basic services, align with broader patterns documented in research on informal urbanization in Latin America and other developing regions [5]. However, the severity of environmental exposure in Henequén, particularly due to its historical use as a landfill site, suggests a heightened level of vulnerability compared to other informal settlements that have developed through conventional urban expansion.

3.1. Socio-Demographic Characterization

A total of 158 guardians or parents were surveyed, each representing a family nucleus, and 87% of those surveyed in the Henequén sector were women. In this sector, 73% of families have four to six members. In addition, 44% of the households are headed by women. Regarding the marital status of the parents or guardians of the children, 60% are in a free union, 28% are single, and 7% are married individuals. These findings are consistent with those reported by [35], who analyzed family composition in low-income communities, showing a prevalence of female-headed households due to paternal abandonment, which has an impact on socialization and psychosocial development processes within the family nucleus. In the context of Henequen, this situation could be linked to the high mobility of its inhabitants, many of whom come from neighborhoods and municipalities with high crime rates and a history of forced displacement, factors that increase social vulnerability and exposure to situations of violence, including mortality associated with these phenomena.

In terms of age distribution, the largest proportion of the population surveyed corresponds to children between 1 and 3 years of age (38.61%), followed by the ranges of 26 to 35 years (18%), 36 to 45 years (18%), and 16 to 25 years (8%). These data show a predominantly young population, which suggests a direct relationship with the dynamics of migration and forced displacement, driven both by the search for economic opportunities and the need to flee contexts of extreme violence. In addition, a migratory phenomenon is evident, with 18% of the inhabitants being of Venezuelan origin, while the rest report being natives of Colombia. However, 23% of the population has been displaced, which represents a significant proportion in the context of the study. Of these, 76% of the displaced population did not specify their place of origin, while 12% come from the Colombian Caribbean Coast, 6% from Venezuela, and 1% from the internal Andean Region of Colombia.

Regarding the educational level of the surveyed population, 52% have completed high school, 20% have completed the seventh or ninth grade, and 15% have only completed elementary school. In addition, 4% have technical training and only 1% have completed their university studies without a professional career (in Colombia, a professional is considered to be a university graduate if he/she has studied for more than four consecutive years). In terms of occupation, 63% of the respondents are engaged in housework, 6% in commerce, and 20% in other occupations. These findings coincide with those reported by [36], who established a direct relationship between educational level, labor occupation, and social development in vulnerable communities, in which the limited supply of technical and professional training in these sectors restricts opportunities for specialization and access to skilled jobs, perpetuating cycles of economic precariousness. In the context of Henequen, although state and educational initiatives to improve job training have increased, significant challenges persist in guaranteeing access to training opportunities that promote social mobility and sustainable community development.

The relationship between education and the comprehensive development of a vulnerable neighborhood affected by economic challenges is critical in driving social, economic, environmental, and political growth. Investing in education in these communities plays a crucial role in improving socio-economic conditions by providing residents with the skills and knowledge needed to participate in the labor force more productively [37,38]. In addition, quality education fosters empowerment and social mobility by providing equitable opportunities for personal and professional development [39]. From an environmental perspective, education can also generate awareness of sustainable practices and promote environmental responsibility in the community [40,41]. In the political realm, an educated population is better equipped to actively participate in democratic processes and advocate for policies that address specific neighborhood needs [37,39]. Thus, education emerges as an essential catalyst for transforming vulnerable neighborhoods, generating a positive impact on various aspects of comprehensive development.

3.2. Housing Conditions

A total of 87% of those surveyed live in a house, 8% in an apartment, and 4% in a rented room. Forty-five percent stated that the house they live in is their own, 28% rented, and 22% rented from relatives. A total of 81% of the houses have one or two bedrooms, confirming the lack of comfortable areas, considering that the average number of inhabitants per family is six members per household. Also, 15% of the houses have three to four rooms, but their specifications are very precarious (Figure 2). The aforementioned is consistent with the majority of respondents, of whom 67% stated an average of two members sleep in each room and 21% stated that four to six people sleep in each room, which could be associated with violent behavior and other behavioral anomalies, as well as possible shared infections including ecto- and endoparasites. However, the relationship between overcrowding and domestic violence is a complex issue involving several social, economic, and cultural variables. Studies have suggested that poor living conditions, including overcrowding, can increase family stress and, in some cases, contribute to tensions that could trigger domestic violence [42,43,44]. It must be considered that the relationship is multifaceted and cannot be attributed to the shared sleep environment alone.

Housing conditions in Henequén reveal significant infrastructural deficiencies that heighten residents’ vulnerability to environmental and structural risks. A majority of homes (64%) are constructed with wood, while only 27% use more durable materials such as blocks or bricks. Roofing materials further reflect this precariousness: 51% of dwellings have zinc roofs, 23% use fiber cement sheets, and the remainder rely on cardboard or other improvised coverings. Flooring materials also vary, with 33% of homes having cement floors, 24% dirt, 19% ceramic tile, and 9% sand (Figure 2). The widespread use of substandard building materials increases the risk of structural failures and exposure to extreme weather events, a trend consistent with informal settlements across Latin America, where housing quality is a key factor in vulnerability to climate change and natural disasters [34,35].

In addition to poor housing, the presence of heavy metals and hazardous organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Henequén reflects trends documented in communities situated near former landfills [28,29]. Chronic exposure to these pollutants has been linked to respiratory diseases, developmental disorders, and elevated cancer risk [33]. However, the health risks in this context may be further intensified by additional exposure pathways. In coastal communities like Henequén, traditional diets often rely heavily on fish and seafood, which are known bioaccumulators of mercury and other toxic metals [19,45,46,47]. In addition, lead has been reported in children from different coastal communities in the Colombian Caribbean [48,49,50].

3.3. Access to Basic Services

Limited access to clean water, sanitation, and waste management remains one of the most critical public service challenges in Henequén. While Colombia reports national coverage rates of 96.3% for electricity, 86.4% for piped water, and 76.6% for sewage systems [18], Henequén falls significantly behind these benchmarks. Among the surveyed households, 82.9% have access to piped water, and 94% have electricity. However, only 50.6% benefit from risk-managed sanitation services, well below the targets established under Sustainable Development Goal 6. In addition, 29% of residents report living near or directly on top of former or current waste disposal sites, further exacerbating environmental health risks. Sanitation infrastructure is limited, with only 51% of households having an indoor bathroom, and in 90% of homes, the kitchen is located outside the living space. Water access is unreliable for 17.1% of families, who rely on daily collection and storage. Cooking practices also reflect infrastructural constraints, with 70% using gas cylinders, 25% electric stoves, and the remainder resorting to firewood or other materials.

The lack of adequate access to basic services, such as water supply and sanitation, for a significant portion of the population raises serious concerns about the fulfillment of the right to basic sanitation. Empirical evidence has shown that lack of access to adequate drinking water and sanitation services is associated with significant public health risks and increases vulnerability to waterborne diseases, such as diarrhea and gastrointestinal illnesses, particularly among children and older adults [51,52]. In addition, the proximity of part of the population to the landfill could increase their exposure to environmental risks and aggravate disparities in quality of life. Regarding the use of gas cylinders as a cooking source, it has been shown that their improper handling and storage can pose significant safety risks. Compressed gas cylinders, if not used and stored correctly, can be susceptible to leaks, increasing the risk of fires and explosions [53].

3.4. Living Conditions

Regarding the health affiliation system, 96% of the population is categorized in the System for the Identification of Potential Beneficiaries of Social Programs (SISBEN), which classifies the population according to their living conditions and income. This classification is used to focus social investment and ensure that it is allocated to those who need it most; depending on their classification, they are offered free health services and state aid to minimize poverty rates. In this sense, 44% of the population receives subsidies through the government’s Families In Action program based on this categorization. Regarding health-care, 32% of the population had received health-care during the previous 5 months, 25% during the first semester of this year, and 17% during the last 3 months, while the remaining percentage received health-care the previous year or before the pandemic.

Regarding reported health habits such as smoking, the use of hallucinogens, alcohol, diseases, and other characteristics, 92% of the respondents do not smoke, 71% do not consume alcoholic beverages, and 92% do not use drugs. Seventy-seven percent stated that they do not suffer from any disease. Of the 20% of the people who suffer from any disease, 32% of them stated that they suffer from cardiovascular problems, and the rest were distributed among neurological, genitourinary, digestive, musculoskeletal, or respiratory diseases. This finding validates what has been reported by [54,55], who stated that developing countries have a special susceptibility to the development of cardiovascular diseases, associated with chronic exposure to particulate matter due to infrastructure failures, occupations such as recycling and waste handling, and the lack of pandemic care.

On the other hand, contraception is present, with the most reported method of control being surgical, 40%, followed by implant, injection, the oral morning-after pill, and condoms, with frequencies of 18%, 8%, and 6%, respectively. However, it is noteworthy that 7% do not use any family planning method at all. This percentage is worrisome because of the implications in terms of economic sustainability and overcrowding in Henequen. This is one of the issues that should be addressed to support the population in mitigating their problems, as proposed by [56]. The concern was confirmed when 50% of the women stated that they have three to five children, while 47% have between zero and two. The rate of abortions is quite high (29–46%), which is noteworthy, given the fact that half of the women surveyed have an average of four children, and most of them are of reproductive age. In addition, 6% of the population claims to have had one child die, but only 2% say it was due to illness and the remaining percentage of people did not reveal the cause of death.

With respect to oral health habits, 99% stated that they used a toothbrush, 77% used toothpaste, and 15% used sodium bicarbonate. The high prevalence of toothbrush use (99%) in the population studied is a positive indicator, since proper oral hygiene is essential to prevent dental problems. However, it is crucial to recognize that access to toothpaste and preference for alternatives such as sodium bicarbonate (15%) may pose challenges in terms of the effectiveness of dental disease prevention, as toothpaste generally contains fluoride, a key component for caries prevention [57].

Vulnerable communities, particularly children, face significant challenges in terms of oral health; the lack of access to preventive dental services and adequate care can increase the prevalence of caries and periodontal disease, which in turn can negatively affect quality of life and overall well-being [58,59]. Poor oral health can also have broader impacts on systemic health, contributing to chronic health problems and affecting self-esteem and quality of life in adults [60]. Addressing oral health in vulnerable communities through preventive interventions, access to dental services, and oral health education is critical. These strategies could contribute significantly to the improvement of oral health and thus to the overall well-being of the population studied.

Regarding food consumption and the number of times it is consumed during the day, it was found that 75% eat two to three times per day, 22% one to two times, and 1% zero to one time. The most consumed food is rice (58%), followed by chicken (15%) and grains (8%), with a lower proportion of meat (8%) and less than 2% of banana, fruit, pasta, bread, or cassava.

3.5. Multivariate Analysis

The results of the Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) explored associations between key socio-demographic variables within the Henequén community. Figure 3 represents an elbow plot to determine the number of components that were selected according to the variance explained. The first two dimensions accumulate about 8% of the total variance of the variables studied. The linear combinations of the variables of the different dimensions show that dimension 1 explains 4.1% and dimension 2 explains 3.7%. Dimensions 1 to 10 explain 29.42% of the cumulative variance.

The statistically significant variables in dimension 1 that present greater adjustment values (R2) with the ANOVA test are as follows: marital status (0.76), the number of people sleeping in each room (0.70), family members (0.55), and the number of children (0.50). Other variables with (R2) values less than 0.50 but that are significant within dimension 1 include the following: number of minors, occupation, age, alcohol consumption, abortions, housing near garbage, planning methods, place of birth, housing roof material, and last time medical care was received. In the first five variables, the relevant subcategories are as follows: marital status (the subcategory of widows), 10 or more people sleeping in each room, 10 and more family members, and having six to eight children.

In dimension 2, the statistically significant variables with the greatest adjustment (R2) values with the ANOVA test are as follows: material of walls of the dwelling (0.86), material of the roof (0.67), bathroom inside the house (0.63), material of the floors (0.60), dwelling near garbage (0.57), and age (0.51). Other variables with (R2) values less than 0.50 in this dimension were head of household, own or rented housing, number of children, marital status, place of birth, method of planning, number of abortions, occupation, level of schooling, if belonging to families in share, and number of meals per day. In dimension 2, the most relevant variables and subcategories were as follows: blocks and wood as wall materials, roof material of zinc or Eternit, no bathroom inside the house, dirt or tiled floor, housing that is not near old or recently accumulated garbage, and age group (productive or unproductive reproductive stage).

A graphical representation of the MCA and the distribution of the variables can be seen in Figure 4. The socio-demographic characterization of the participant population is determined by the location and direction of the variables studied. The distance between variables (vectors) describes their association. For example, the closeness of the variables F11 (the level of schooling), V6 (housing roof material), and R6 (housing near garbage), means that the characterization of this population is strongly influenced by these three variables. The smaller the distance between the variables or vectors, the greater the association between them when characterizing the population.

In this plot, each vector represents a variable coded by its dimension. F1–F12 (Family): variables related to family composition and structure (e.g., F1 = number of household members; F5 = marital status of the head of the household). V1–V10 (Housing): variables concerning housing conditions (e.g., V4 = roof material; V6 = proximity to waste sites). SE1–SE8 (Services and Education): variables reflecting access to basic services and educational level (e.g., SE3 = access to potable water; SE6 = highest educational attainment).

Figure 5 shows the variables represented in the four dimensions of the Cartesian plane. In the first place, a high level of homogeneity is observed in the distribution of the variables studied, given that they are presented as an accumulation of points in a specific sector of the Cartesian plane. Secondly, the variables that are in the positive X and Y planes determine a higher percentage of the characterization of the population studied. The variables that are located in the positive X and negative Y planes; negative X and positive Y planes; and negative X and Y planes represent the variables that contribute to the socio-demographic condition.

To corroborate the analyses performed, an ANOVA was performed for each dimension. In this sense, the information represented by the observations closer to the X-axis is determined by the variables that have a positive or negative direction and direction on the X-axis as well. For example, observation 102 has a high contribution, mainly, to the variables F5, SE11, V4, F1, and F2. It can be observed that the variables with the highest fit (R2) on this dimension are F5, V4, F1, SE11, and F2. However, all the variables according to the p-value are significant on the dimension.

A correlation between the variables and the categories according to dimensions 2 and 3 was performed. It can be observed that the variables with the highest fit (R2) on these dimensions are V5, V6, R5, V7, R6, F8, and F4; however, all variables according to the p-value are significant in these dimensions.

3.6. Local Sustainability Indicators

The comparison between local data from the Henequén sector and national targets for selected Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) reveals significant disparities that highlight the depth of social vulnerability and sustainability challenges in the community. While some indicators, such as access to electricity, show alignment with national objectives, substantial gaps remain in critical areas like poverty, food security, health, and housing conditions (

Table 2. Comparison of local progress toward selected Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Henequén neighborhood relative to national targets for 2030.

Sustainable Development Goals	Indicator	Target for 2030	Local Indicator
Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere	Proportion of the population covered by systems or minimum levels of social protection	100%	96.2%
	Proportion of men, women, and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions, according to national definitions	8.4%	81.6%
Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture	Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity	0%	24.7%
Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages	Child mortality rate (for 1000)	0.012	0.032
	Proportion of women of reproductive age who meet their family planning needs with modern methods	100%	17.7%
Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all	Proportion of the population using drinking water supply services	100%	82.9%
	Proportion of the population using risk-managed sanitation services	100%	50.6%
Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all	Proportion of the population with access to electricity	100%	100%
Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable	Proportion of the urban population living in inadequate housing	0%	93.7%

). These discrepancies underscore the multidimensional nature of deprivation in Henequén, where residents face compounded socio-economic and environmental disadvantages.

The disparities between local progress and national targets for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are further illustrated in the radar chart (Figure 6). This visual representation highlights the significant gaps across key sustainability indicators, particularly in areas such as poverty reduction, food security, sanitation services, and adequate housing. While access to electricity shows full alignment with national targets, other critical indicators reveal pronounced deficiencies. For instance, the proportion of the population living in inadequate housing remains alarmingly high, alongside limited access to safe drinking water and modern family planning services. The visualization emphasizes the multidimensional nature of social vulnerability in the Henequén neighborhood, showcasing how deeply entrenched socio-economic and environmental inequalities hinder local progress toward achieving the SDGs. This figure underscores the need for targeted interventions that address the intersection of poverty, infrastructure deficits, and environmental hazards, which collectively contribute to the persistence of vulnerability in this community.

3.7. Vulnerability of Children and Implications for Children’s Health

The findings of this study have significant implications for children in the Henequén neighborhood, particularly given the sample population is composed of parents of school-aged children. The persistent gaps in access to basic services, such as adequate housing, sanitation, and clean water, directly affect children’s health, cognitive development, and educational outcomes. Living in conditions of poverty and inadequate infrastructure has been associated with increased exposure to infectious diseases, malnutrition, and psychological stress, all of which hinder a child’s ability to thrive academically and socially [61]. Furthermore, research has shown that childhood exposure to poverty and deprivation can lead to long-term mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, and diminish future social mobility [62]. The lack of access to quality education and basic necessities, including proper nutrition and safe housing, reinforces cycles of poverty and social exclusion [63]. In the context of Henequén, these factors are compounded by environmental hazards and exposure to illicit activities, further jeopardizing children’s development.

Progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those related to health, nutrition, and basic services, remains uneven in marginalized urban contexts such as Henequén. Poverty, a key determinant of health disparities, severely limits children’s access to nutrition, education, and safe environments, impairing both physical and cognitive development [64]. Chronic food insecurity is a critical concern, as undernutrition not only weakens immune systems but also contributes to stunted growth, poor academic performance, and long-term socio-economic disadvantages [7,8,65]. In Henequén, these issues are compounded by limited access to reproductive health services, which contribute to high maternal and child mortality rates and increase the risk of premature births and developmental delays [63,66]. These interlinked factors perpetuate cycles of vulnerability, underscoring the urgent need for SDG-aligned policies that address the root causes of child health disparities in underserved communities.

Inadequate progress on SDG targets related to water, sanitation, housing, and infrastructure continues to undermine the well-being of children in urban peripheries. Lack of access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) remains a significant barrier to child health, increasing the prevalence of preventable diseases such as diarrhea, parasitic infections, and respiratory illness [67,68]. Poor housing quality further compounds these risks by exposing children to overcrowding, indoor pollution, and unsafe structures, all of which are linked to respiratory illness, psychological stress, and poor academic engagement [69]. While access to electricity in Henequén is relatively high, its benefits are limited when other fundamental needs remain unmet. Sustainable development efforts must therefore integrate housing, WASH, and nutrition interventions into broader social protection strategies to reduce child vulnerability and promote holistic well-being.

Our contributions to the area of study included a localized SDG monitoring tool. Our approach bridges a critical gap between high-level SDG reporting and neighborhood-scale realities, offering practitioners a mixed-data georeferenced tool adaptable to other post-industrial or informal settlements. While most urban vulnerability studies neglect age-specific metrics, we explicitly integrate under-5 health and reproductive health variables into the framework, foregrounding pediatric vulnerability in SDG assessments.

Building on our findings, we outline four targeted interventions—ranging from micro-treatment units for household graywater to conditional cash transfers for child health—that directly align with SDGs 3, 6, and 11. This elevates our manuscript beyond a descriptive analysis to actionable policy design.

Despite our findings, we had limitations related to the study’s cross-sectional design and self-report bias. This study’s single-timepoint survey cannot establish causality, and sensitive topics (e.g., substance use and reproductive history) may suffer from under-reporting due to social desirability bias.

In addition, the first two MCA dimensions capture only 8% of the total variance—a known challenge in heterogeneous social-ecological datasets. While higher dimensions were not our focus, they may contain additional, less-interpretable patterns.

By relying exclusively on quantitative measures, we miss nuanced community perspectives on landfill exposure and coping strategies. Embedding focus groups or key-informant interviews in future work would enrich our interpretations.

Our cluster sampling of 158 households near the former landfill may not represent all informal neighborhoods. Non-response was mitigated by replacement sampling, yet residual bias cannot be excluded.

We acknowledge that our cross-sectional design—based on a single survey timepoint—limits causal inferences between socio-demographic factors and vulnerability outcomes, and that reliance on self-reported data may introduce recall or social desirability bias, while fine-scale soil and water contaminant measurements warrant additional external validation. Moreover, although our composite index is specifically tailored to Henequén’s post-landfill context, its broader applicability must be confirmed through longitudinal studies in other neighborhoods that were formally dumps. By transparently recognizing these constraints, we hope to guide future work toward the longitudinal validation and methodological refinement of our decision support framework.

4. Conclusions

The findings of this study demonstrate that socio-demographic conditions in Henequén significantly influence social vulnerability and impact quality of life, particularly that of school-aged children. Factors such as inadequate housing, limited access to basic services, and exposure to environmental risks contribute to persistent socio-economic disadvantages that reinforce cycles of poverty and marginalization. The comparison with national targets for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) highlights substantial gaps in poverty reduction, food security, sanitation, and adequate housing, reflecting systemic inequalities that hinder local sustainability efforts. These outcomes point to the need for integrated interventions focused on improving educational opportunities, enhancing infrastructure, and strengthening public health measures. Prioritizing actions that address these vulnerabilities is essential for reducing social exclusion, supporting sustainable development, and promoting better living conditions for children, who are particularly affected by these challenges. Advancing policies aligned with the SDGs and tailored to the specific needs of this community can help mitigate social vulnerability and foster long-term improvements in well-being.

Building on these insights, we propose a set of concrete, community-driven policy recommendations. First and foremost, it is essential to strengthen water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure in informal settlements such as Henequén. We recommend designing and piloting community-managed networks for safe drinking water and wastewater disposal, in partnership with Cartagena’s Aqueduct Company and local neighborhood associations. By empowering residents to manage and maintain these systems, we anticipate a 30% reduction in diarrheal disease incidence and a significant improvement in water quality within two years, while reinforcing social cohesion and trust between the community and public authorities.

Equally urgent is the regularization and improvement of housing to alleviate overcrowding and enhance resilience against extreme weather events. Formal agreements with the National Housing Fund should support the construction of robust housing modules—concrete block walls and Eternit roofing—prioritizing households with more than six members. This strategy is projected to reduce overcrowding by 40% and provide structural safety that protects families during heavy rains or high winds.

A third cornerstone involves bolstering environmental health interventions through a local contaminant-monitoring system. Bolívar’s Health Department, in collaboration with the Universidad del Sinú laboratory, should lead the regular testing of soils and water sources for heavy metals and organic pollutants. The continuous flow of these data will inform and refine remediation policies and waste management plans for former landfill sites, thereby mitigating long-term toxic exposure and safeguarding community health.

At the same time, expanding social protection networks with a gender equity focus is critical. We propose broadening the coverage of the “Familias en Acción” program and pairing it with psychosocial training workshops for women heads of household, coordinated by Cartagena’s Social Development Secretariat. These measures aim to boost the economic resilience of participating women by at least 25% and to narrow gaps in educational and employment opportunities for their children.

Finally, environmental education and civic engagement are catalysts for sustainable change. We recommend rolling out school- and community-based workshops on safe waste handling and the hazards of improper disposal, in partnership with the Secretariat of Education and local environmental NGOs. By doing so, we expect to raise proper waste management practices to 60% and cultivate a new generation of youth leaders who champion health and environmental stewardship in Henequén.