Urban Sustainability in Construction: A Comparative Review of Waste Management Practices in Developed Nations
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Environmental Management Practices in Construction Industry
3.1. Status, Policy, and Environmental Management Practices in Hong Kong
3.1.1. Status and Issues in the Construction Sector of Hong Kong
3.1.2. Governmental Policy of Hong Kong
3.1.3. Environmental Management Practices in Hong Kong
3.2. Status, Policy and Environmental Management Practices in the UK
3.2.1. Status and Issues in the Construction Sector of the UK
3.2.2. Governmental Policy of the UK
3.2.3. Environmental Management Practices in the UK
3.2.4. Proposing Environmental Management Practice
4. Green Materials for Construction
4.1. Recycled Plastic Lumber
4.2. Eco-Concrete
4.3. Recovered Steel
5. Green Materials Technologies
5.1. Green Roof
5.2. Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV)
6. Future Policy Direction
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Regulation | Year | Policy | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Waste Disposal Ordinance | 1980 | Legislation waste generation in construction sites. Framework for managing onsite waste from generation to disposal. Prohibit use of any premises as waste disposal area unless permitted by Director of Environmental Protection. Amendment in 2003 to accommodate construction waste disposal charging scheme and waste crime. | [11] |
10-Year Plan | 1989 | Aim to minimize construction waste and other environmental pollution issues. | [11] |
Green Manager Scheme | 1994 | Appoint Green Managers from all governmental departments to look after green-housekeeping-related matters. Focus on water and energy saving. | [11] |
Waste Disposal Regulations | 1995 | Introduced charge payment for disposal of wastes (chemical waste and construction solid waste) at landfills. | [11] |
Waste Disposal (Designated Waste Disposal Facility) Regulation | 1996 | Ensure the upkeep of orderly conduct within places used for waste disposal activities. Prevent the evasion of service charges of waste disposal. | [11] |
Waste Reduction Framework Plan | 1998 | Reduce, reuse, and recycling aspects (materials management).Milestones include extend landfill useful life, reduce quantity of waste, conserve non-renewable materials, increase recycling practices, persuade the public on the true cost of waste management, and encourage efficient on-site and off-site waste management operation. | [11] |
Landfill Charging Scheme | 1999 | Based on principles of “Polluter Pays” and “User Pays”. | [11] |
“Construct for Excellence” report | 2001 | Responsible for implementation: Construction industry Review Committee and the Departments of Buildings, Lands, and Planning. Promote the use of recycled and green building materials in the design and construction operation to reduce construction waste. | [19] |
Joint Practice Note (JPN) | 2001 | JPN1 (2001) and JPN2 (2007) were published on reducing construction waste. They provide exemption of site coverage or gross floor area (GFA) calculation for builders to increase the use rate of prefabricated external walls. The 2011 revision introduce an overall cap of 10% GFA exemptions for qualified features. | [19] |
Practical Note on Recycled Aggregate | 2003 | To eliminate the uncertainty of using recycled aggregates under the guidelines for recycling construction waste, the use of reusable aggregates should be promoted and standards and guidelines for their use should be developed. Technical guidelines apply to concrete for both prescribed and planned mixes. | [19] |
Waste Management Plan and Pay for Safety and Environment Scheme | 2003 | This is highlighted in the circular “Construction Site Waste Management” from the Environment, Transport and Labour Office. | [19] |
Recycling Pilot Plant | 2004 | Established in Tuen Mun, inert waste is processed into recycled aggregates for road construction and as raw materials for the production of asphalt and small concrete structures. Between 2004 and 2006, public projects began using recycled aggregates. | [19] |
Trip Ticket System (TTS) | 2004 | The system was introduced in 1999 and expanded in 2004 to combat illegal waste disposal. Destinations and routes are tracked and monitored. | [19] |
Construction Waste Disposal Charging Scheme | 2005 | Promote the sorting, reduction, and resource utilization of construction waste. Two external sorting facilities (Tuen Mun and Tseung Kwan O) have been set up. | [19] |
Best Practice Guide | 2009 | Published by the Hong Kong Construction Association for reference by frontline management teams when dealing with environmental issues (including site waste management). | [19] |
Construction Waste Management Tool | Developer Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|
SMARTWaste | Collects and organizes data on the types and quantities of waste generated on construction sites. Helps create site-specific waste management plans that can inform future waste control strategies. | [31] |
Net Waste Tool | Estimates the amount of waste that will be generated during construction activities, aiding in planning and management. | [31] |
BreMap | Assists waste producers and users in finding the nearest recycling centers, reclamation facilities, and landfill sites, and it sources for locally reclaimed and recycled materials. | [14] |
Webfill | An online marketplace designed to promote the reuse of construction waste by facilitating the exchange of surplus materials. | [14] |
SWMP Tracker | A digital tool for compiling and analyzing data from Site Waste Management Plans (SWMPs). | [34] |
ConstructCLEAR | Integrates and simplifies processes for managing SWMPs, carbon reporting, waste procurement, and ensuring regulatory compliance. | [34] |
Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) | Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessment and Award Scheme (CEEQUAL) | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Certification scheme for environmental assessment of building (local spatial planning projects and infrastructure projects) | Improvement of sustainability in public works and civil engineering projects via self-evaluation and rewards. | [36,37,38,39] |
Often used building sustainability performance measures in the UK since its introduction in 1990. | Launched in 2015 with the support of industry organizations. | [36,37] |
Ten categories of environmental criteria for sustainability assessment. | Twelve categories of environmental criteria for sustainability assessment. | [36,38] |
A range of schemes for assessment that cover different requirements of building types. | A range of awards for projects involved in assessment: whole project award, client and design award, construction only award, etc. | [36,38] |
The total score is a sum of various category scores that are weighted to achieve a pass (30%), good (45%), very good (55%), excellent (70%), and exceptional (85%) rating. | Pass (30%), good (40%), very good (60%), and excellent (75%) are the grades of reward. Give incentives to clients or developers to improve upon best practices. | [36,39] |
Assessment is conducted independently and credible by government. | Assessment and award process involves project assessor and a verifier. | [36,38] |
Policy | Remark | Effect | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations | For construction industry with GBP 2 million or more of turnover and handle 50 tons of packaging waste per year. Companies obliged to recover packaging waste. | The company collaborates with product manufacturers and supply chains to implement recyclable/returnable packaging as a means to reduce waste. | [13,23,31] |
Landfill tax | Tax for active waste is 32 GBP/ton (2008) increased to 48 GBP/ton (2010). Tax for inactive waste is 2.5 GBP/ton (2008). | Impose considerable costs for industry that produce waste and use waste management contractors. Develop the culture of recycling and recovering onsite waste. | [13,23,31] |
Aggregates Levy | 1.95 GBP/ton (2008). | Improved financial incentive for secondary and recycled aggregates. More purchase consideration and increased on-site reuse. A higher standard of supply for secondary and recycled aggregates used in high-value projects. | [13,23,31] |
Hazardous Waste (England and Wales) Regulations 2005 | Requirement for identification and classification of hazardous waste. Pre-treatment of hazardous waste before landfill, particularly in situ treatment. Company needs to register site with Environment Agency if the activities producing 200 kg or more of hazardous waste per year. | An increase in the cost of hazardous waste disposal from C&D waste. | [13,23,31] |
Waste Strategy for England 2007 by Defra | A vision to reduce waste production across the supply chain, promote close loop industry through reuse and recycling, and improve economics of reuse and recycling industry. Mission to halve landfilled construction wastes (including excavation component), requirement of construction client to include strategy is contractual for measurement and improvement in construction project in value GBP 1 million by 2009 and achieve waste-neutral construction. | Culture of joint working between government and industry. Client emphasizes enhanced resource efficiency. The market for reclaimed and recycled materials expanded. | [13,23,31] |
Sustainable Construction Strategy 2007 by BERR | Aim to establish a joint government and industry strategy towards sustainable industry Consultation of the targets for England Waste Strategy. Targets to zero net waste at construction site level by 2015, zero waste to landfill by 2020, and halve onsite construction waste quantity. | Manufacturers consider resource efficiency within lifecycles. Tackle waste through integrated supply chains. Specification of resource efficiency by designers or architects. | [13,23,31] |
Site Waste Management Plans (SWMPs) | Compulsory from April 2008 for projects over GBP 300,000. | Effective management of on-site waste through appropriate planning and monitoring. Observed ongoing reduction in fly-tipping incidents. | [13,23,31] |
Code for Sustainable Homes (CSH) | For house builders to meet environmental standards. Rating for all new homes commenced from May 2008. Voluntary codes. | [13,23,31] |
Technology | Green Roof | Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Functionality | Minimize heat flow that enhances indoor thermal comfort, reducing the energy demand for space cooling in a building and achieving energy efficient design. | Develop building surfaces as active solar collectors to supply clean, safe, economical, and decentralized power. | [17,51,52,53,54,55] |
Types | Extensive green roof Semi-Intensive green roof Intensive green roof | Two major types of solar cells that make up the array of interconnecting cells of BIPV: inorganic silicon semiconductors and inorganic nanocrystalline salts deposited as thin films on a substrate. Various types of building components for BIPV, like roofs, facades, and skylights. | [17,51,52,53,54,55] |
Example Project | The Solaire, New York Villa Mairea, Finland Monastery of La Tourette, France Rockefeller Center in New York | Terrace in Battery Park City, New York AstroPower’s Headquarters, Newark Delaware The Solaire, New York | [17,51,52,53,54,55] |
Pros (Main) | Rainfall runoff reduction. Aesthetic benefit. Reduce surface heat flux. | Energy production Weather protection Noise protection Material savings Thermal insulation Daylight modulation | [17,51,52,53,54,55] |
Cons | Considerable cost to install and maintain the system. | Power efficiency. Design lack of standardization that restricts implementation in few countries. | [17,51,52,53,54,55] |
Benefit | Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Environmental Benefit | Act as natural air filtration. Act as carbon sink and oxygen source. Control and reduce sound reflection. Reduce ambient temperature by 0.3–3 degrees C compared to conventional roof. Shield against acid rain and UV rays. | [55,58] |
Economic Benefit | Reduce energy consumption by shade, insulation, evaporation, and an increase in thermal mass. Enhance the energy efficiency of structures. In response to a rise in temperature, a green roof is less susceptible to contraction than other construction materials. Provide thermal comfort by absorbing shortwave radiation and cooling the ambient temperature, therefore mitigating the urban heat island effect that is prevalent in cities and towns. The thermal insulation provided by a green roof against UV radiation oscillations and diurnal stress extends the roof’s lifespan. | [55,58] |
Social Benefit | Places for recreation and rest. Great for human health and wellbeing (psychological impact) Enhance living environment. Offer environment for rare or imperiled species. | [55,58] |
Case Study | Residential Building in Battery Park City, New York. | AstroPower Headquarters—A Solar Cell Manufacturer in Newark, Delaware. | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
BIPV Technology | Front façade equipped with an 11 kW_p BIPV solar system. A total of 11 rows of standard solar modules mounted horizontally and tilted towards the sun in front of the brick façade building. (Passive solar heating.) Semi-transparent canopy PV module at the entrance of the building. Landscaped flat roof. | A 30 kW_p BIP façade covering front face of building. A 310 kW PowerGuard system covering the roof of manufacturing plant of building. Insulated glass PV technology as sunshades in façade that create a large skylight above the entrance of lobby. | [52,54,61] |
Functionality | BIPV façade supplying 5% of building base electricity consumption. Passive solar system contributes the dominant portion of green power supply for the building. | Supply the total electricity consumption of entire administrative offices. PowerGuard systems provide thermal insulation that help protect roofing membrane from harsh UV radiation. Blue tinted insulation glass window offers optimum light within a working climate. | [52,54,61] |
Structural design | By using TEDLAR encapsulation technology, the PV laminates made into custom shape to adapt to building dimensions in standard glass. The modules integrated into cassette façade system, which is an external cladding system to provide a skin or layer that eases installation. | BIPV façade constructed from aluminum façade system with custom sized TEDLAR PV laminates (glass) mounted into supporting structure. Ballasted PowerGuard System that enables mechanical attachment to the structure without any penetration, enhancing roof warranties. Integrate the multi-crystalline solar cells into PV modules through glazing technology to form a uniform blue appearance. | [52,54,61] |
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Hadibarata, T.; Kristanti, R.A. Urban Sustainability in Construction: A Comparative Review of Waste Management Practices in Developed Nations. Urban Sci. 2025, 9, 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9060217
Hadibarata T, Kristanti RA. Urban Sustainability in Construction: A Comparative Review of Waste Management Practices in Developed Nations. Urban Science. 2025; 9(6):217. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9060217
Chicago/Turabian StyleHadibarata, Tony, and Risky Ayu Kristanti. 2025. "Urban Sustainability in Construction: A Comparative Review of Waste Management Practices in Developed Nations" Urban Science 9, no. 6: 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9060217
APA StyleHadibarata, T., & Kristanti, R. A. (2025). Urban Sustainability in Construction: A Comparative Review of Waste Management Practices in Developed Nations. Urban Science, 9(6), 217. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9060217