Impact of Urban Green Spaces on the Livelihoods of Residents in Bulawayo and Johannesburg Cities

Abstract

Urban green spaces (UGSs) play a pivotal role in sustaining the livelihoods of urban dwellers. This study sought to explore the impact of UGSs on livelihoods in Bulawayo and Johannesburg cities. A mixed-methods approach was used to develop a nuanced understanding of the nexus between UGSs and the livelihoods of the residents. A questionnaire survey (n = 658) with 329 participants from each city and 20 interviews were used to gather and generate data. Twelve types of UGSs were identified, with a relatively large proportion of the participants recognizing informal recreational areas as the common type of urban green space (UGS) in both cities. Domestic gardens, cemeteries, parks, woodlands, institutional green spaces, street trees, wastelands, commonages, and green roofs were other green spaces in both cities. Economically, job opportunities emerged in areas such as selling wares, photography, and the collection of firewood and wild fruits for sale. Likewise, farming activities and property values increased. Socially, they were valuable recreation and leisure spots for picnicking, dog walking, dating escapades, mental and spiritual wellness as well as education. Environmentally, UGSs were special in terms of medicinal provisions and aesthetics. However, urbanization and encroachment are undermining the extent of livelihood benefits. Therefore, it is imperative to revitalize UGSs by instituting robust partnerships and collaboration between government agencies, mobilize resources and expertise, value addition to existing UGSs, rigorous education to promote better appreciation, inclusion of the locals in the design process so that green spaces meet their needs and priorities, and establishing effective maintenance and management systems that ensure sustainability of UGSs.

1. Introduction

The urge to attain ecologically and economically sound cities has made green spaces a critical facet of urban development [1]. Green spaces are natural and multi-purpose spaces that offer social, environmental, and economic advantages to the city while beautifying the general outlook of urban areas [2]. They may be set aside for recreation or ecological uses. Categorically, urban green spaces encompass parks, woodlands, street trees, playgrounds, and green sites in residential areas. Be that as it may, there is no standardization of what constitutes urban green areas. Rather, they differ from one locality to another depending on perceptions. Regardless of their important niche in social, economic, and environmental transformation, green spaces have been prone to serious depletion [3]. Urbanization and poor management practices have exacerbated the rapid deterioration of green spaces in many African cities. For example, the total coverage of green spaces in Lagos, Nigeria, is less than 3% of the city’s landscape. However, through proactive management practices such as joint decision-making, a considerable number of South American cities have been able to amplify socio-economic and environmental benefits emanating from green spaces. On the contrary, cities in the Global South have had a peculiar trend. Similarly, the situation in Dares Salam, Tanzania, is no different, as urbanization has destroyed green spaces [4]. This shows that UGSs are going through fragmentation in one way or another. However, the extent to which UGSs exist or undergo fragmentation is not uniform throughout the Southern Africa region, thus impacting livelihoods differently.

The usage and appreciation of UGSs have evolved over time and have been a varied phenomenon, implying different levels of benefits to diverse social classes of urban residents [5]. Unplanned urbanization and the conversion of green into grey structures in Kumasi, Ghana, and Lagos, Nigeria, has compromised the benefits that urban dwellers receive from UGSs. But this does not withstand the fact that UGSs could fill a huge role in sustaining and improving livelihoods, if created and properly managed. The peculiarity of the phenomenon has also been evident in the variation between perceived and actual benefits from urban green spaces. These discrepancies in the appreciation of UGSs have been evident worldwide, with the discovery that in the Global North, much of the documented benefits have been recreational and regulatory in nature. Even in terms of the research conducted, the Global North has received more research on the contribution of UGSs to urban livelihoods [6]. However, a systematic review conducted in different cities across the world revealed that the Global South has more UGSs compared to the Global North [7]. The relationship between UGSs and livelihood benefits has been confirmed in the literature. Addas [2] employed a mixed-methods study and a sample of 500 people in Lend, Gratz, Switzerland and found that UGSs transformed quality of life. However, there has been an outcry to create more green spaces to support diverse livelihoods for urban residents. Atiqq Haq et al. [8] concur that green spaces in South America have been instrumental in offering a platform for social cohesion and relaxation, but this has been to different extents. Similarly, Barrera et al. [9] established that UGSs have a varied niche in providing socio-economic and environmental benefits as cities expand. To corroborate this, Russo [10] confirms that the sustainable management of UGSs in Gratz has increased their potential to sustain diverse livelihoods. Falayi et al. [11] highlighted that provision-related services, such as timber and non-timber products for consumption and income generation, have been more appreciated, specifically by low-income urban residents in the Global South. However, as fast-paced urbanization has taken precedence around the world, environmental, socio-economic, and political stressors have increased from over time, thereby undermining the size and quality of ecosystem services derived from UGSs [12]. As a result, this has often compromised the livelihoods of urban residents worldwide.

In relation to South Africa, Radebe [13] reported that most cities have less than 10% public park coverage in their total land areas. The extent of destruction suggests that, regardless of their significance, the impact of urban green spaces on the livelihoods of local residents remains less understood or taken for granted, particularly from the dimension of low-income communities. This study aims to investigate the impact of UGSs on the livelihoods of residents of Bulawayo and Johannesburg cities, exploring the ways in which the benefits can be enhanced. Urban green spaces impact the livelihood of urban residents in various ways.

Bulawayo and Johannesburg have not been spared from urbanization and its subsequent impact on service delivery. To corroborate this, Ngulani and Shackleton [14] argue that as an influx of migration and a natural increase in people has become common, more demand for resources and services from UGSs has emerged. Nonetheless, with different patterns and extents of urbanization [15], this has translated to a varied influence on the existence, distribution, and niche of urban green spaces in supporting the livelihoods of local residents. Furthermore, intra-variations in the extent of vulnerability amongst low-income residents are common, yet they are often overlooked [16]. The very same thing can be said regarding levels of access to resources and services from existing urban green spaces [17]. Be that as it may, no study has explicitly focused on such dynamics on the two fronts concurrently, leaving a gap in how UGSs impact the livelihoods of local residents. Above all, the distribution, management, and perceived benefits emanating from UGSs are varied phenomena across different social classes and between classes [18]. Based on this, it is imperative to explore the impact of UGSs on the livelihoods of the local residents of Bulawayo and Johannesburg.

This study aimed to assess the impact of UGSs on the livelihoods of locals in Bulawayo and Johannesburg, as informed and driven by a passion for sustainable conservation and amplification of UGSs, which maximize the potential for livelihood benefits. This research aimed at promoting solutions tailored to each case, such as robust urban greening policies and zoning, educating locals about the importance of safeguarding existing green spaces and complementing them with green initiatives, and investing in sustainable construction. Still, many locals are yet to fully appreciate the niche of UGSs in their livelihoods and are not yet active agents for change through sustainable maintenance and utilization [19].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

This study was conducted in Bulawayo (20°9′0″ S 28°35′0″ E), in Zimbabwe, and Johannesburg (26°12′16″ S; 28°2′44″ E), in Gauteng province of South Africa (Figure 1). Bulawayo city covers 546 km², with a population of 665,952 [20]. Bulawayo has warm summers and is classified under the savannah biome [14]. It is characterized by 47 formal and informal public green spaces, with 19 in low-income residential suburbs, 22 in low-density areas, 5 in medium-density areas, and 1 in an industrial area [21]. Thus, Hillside Park (20°11′16″ S; 28°36′40″ E), Centenary (20°09′11″ S; 28°35′30″ E), Luveve (20°06′27″ S; 28°30′30″ E), Nkulumane (20°10′23″ S; 28°30′13″ E), and Queens (20°06′41″ S; 28°36′17″ E) were central to this study. On the other hand, Johannesburg covers an area of 1645 km², with a population of 4,803,262 [22]. It has a temperate climate with warm summers and cool winters, and its economy has roots in the extractive sector [23]. Soweto (26°15′46″ S; 27°52′42″ E), Kya Sand (26°01′43″ S; 27°57′15″ E), Kensington (26°05′30″ S; 28°05′52″ E), Bez Valley (26°11′01″ S; 28°05′35″ E), and Randburg (26°07′32″ S; 28°00′37″ E) formed the focal points for this investigation.

2.2. Data Collection

The mixed-methods approach, which entails the use of quantitative and qualitative techniques in a single study [24], was employed in this study, leading to a better understanding of the types of UGSs in Bulawayo and Johannesburg and their impact on the livelihoods of local residents. Ten UGSs were purposively sampled, with five from each city, and it was ensured that they covered low-, medium-, and high-density suburbs. Thus, in Bulawayo, Hillside Park, Centenary, Luveve, Nkulumane, and Queens were selected, whereas in Johannesburg, Soweto, Kya Sand, Kensington, Bez Valley, and Randburg formed the focal points for investigation. The primary data consisted of a (n = 658) questionnaire-based survey, with 329 participants randomly selected from each city, ensuring an equal opportunity for every household to be included in the study [25]. The selection was carried out after delineating the ten urban green spaces central to this study. A total of 20 key informant interviews were conducted after purposively sampling 3 councilors, 4 municipality officials, 2 school sports masters, and 1 expert from non-governmental enterprises from each city. Each interview lasted approximately 20 min.

In all the sampled households, we interviewed those who were aged 15 years and above, regardless of their gender. One respondent was interviewed per household. We followed ethical guidelines by interviewing any willing participant in any given household. In cases where all household residents refused to participate, we moved on to the next household. For all the minors (15 to 17 years) who participated in this research, we followed ethical guidelines by asking their guardians to fill out consent forms.

We did not allow friends to participate, as they may have given us biased information, since they may have anticipated what we would have expected them to fill in the questionnaires. Drunk people were not allowed to participate, since they could have offered wrong information. To avoid misinterpretation of questions, minors below the age of 15 years were not allowed to participate, since their comprehension of questions is still low at that. Furthermore, people who had stayed for less than 5 years in an affected area were not allowed to participate, since we anticipated that they might not yet have adequate information to offer in terms of this research.

Data were collected from late October 2024 to mid-December 2024. Interview transcripts were subjected to coding and thematic analysis to bring recurring ideas and subsequent themes to the fore [25]. The R software (version 4.3.3) was used for the data analyses. In the R software, we used data visualization and statistical tests as our analytical methods. Data visualization was used to produce graphs, and we ran t-tests to check the correlations between visitation and the range of benefits, as well as the nature of the UGSs and the locals’ inclinations to use green spaces. Generally, the aim was to obtain diverse insights from different stakeholders regarding the impact of UGSs on the livelihoods of local residents. The participants were informed about the aim of the research, consent forms were provided, and their anonymity was assured. Probing was a vital component of the interviews, leading to us gaining rich insights into the types of UGSs and their implications for the livelihoods of local residents.

Secondary data encompassed online sources, journals, and the academic literature. These were consulted in order to obtain an understanding of urban-development-related issues, population growth, and access to resources in green spaces. In addition, government reports provided valuable insights.

2.3. Methods

We employed both probability and non-probability sampling techniques in our study. Simple random sampling was carried out to select (n = 658) urban residents: 329 were obtained from each city, and proximity to green spaces was also taken into account. The Raosoft sample size (online) calculator was used to determine the population sample size per city. This calculator is used to determine the appropriate sample size needed when conducting research [26]. An average of 66 respondents were interviewed per green space (

Table 1. Number of respondents at each smaller administrative level.

Johannesburg		Bulawayo
Name of Green Space	No of Respondents	Name of Green Space	No of Respondents
Bezuidenhout Park	66	Centenary Park	66
Delta Park	66	Hillside Park	65
Kya Sand	65	Luveve Park	66
Rhodes Park	66	Nkulumane Park	66
Thokoza Park	66	Queens Park	66
Total	329	Total	329

).

This offered equal chances for participation, specifically for residents staying in the Bulawayo suburbs such as Hillside Park, Centenary, Luveve, Nkulumane, and Queens, whereas for the Johannesburg suburbs, i.e., Soweto, Kya Sand, Kensington, Bez Valley, and Randburg, we excluded households outside these suburbs due to proximity reasons. For non-probability techniques, purposive sampling was used to select 20 key informants who were knowledgeable in issues related to UGSs and livelihoods. In order to come up with questions, we used the SPIDER framework, where S denotes sample, PI denotes phenomenon of interest (impact of urban green spaces on livelihoods of urban residents), D denotes design (research design), E denotes evaluation, encompassing the type of data involved (numerical and non-numerical), and R denotes research type, which in this case was a mixed-methods approach. By adopting this framework, we were able to craft questions intended to tap into numeric and non-numeric data regarding the impact of UGSs on the livelihoods of urban residents in both cities.

To search for secondary data, we selected peer-reviewed journals on UGSs, urban greening and forestry, the environment, urban ecology, people, and nature from 2014 to 2024 to establish the current trends in the nexus between UGSs and livelihoods. We only included published articles that focused on urban residents living in urban environments. We excluded studies that focused on urban and rural areas and did not consider urban residents separately.

3. Results and Discussion

In this section, we present our findings on the demographic information of the participants, the types of UGSs inherent in Bulawayo and Johannesburg, the livelihood benefits from UGSs, and the frequency of visits. The correlation between the frequency of visits to UGSs and livelihood benefits is proven below.

3.1. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 2. Demographic information of respondents (n = 658), with 329 respondents per city.

Demographic	Characteristic or Variable	Bulawayo (%)	Johannesburg (%)
Sex	Female	57.8	54.7
	Male	42.2	45.3
	Total	100	100
Age (years)	15–25	45.6	44.7
	26–36	36.5	30.4
	37–47	15.2	17.0
	48–58	2.4	6.1
	59+	0.3	1.8
	Total	100	100
Level of education	Primary	10.3	29.2
	High school	54.7	47.7
	Tertiary	35.9	23.1
	No schooling	0.0	0.0
	Total	100	100
Period of stay in the community (years)	5–10	24.3	56.2
	11–15	45.6	24.9
	16+	30.1	18.9
	Total	100	100
Occupation	Formal job	9.1	20.4
	Informal job	63.8	49.2
	Unemployed	27.1	30.4
	Total	100	100

summarizes the respondents’ demographic information in the study areas. A total of 658 participants participated in this questionnaire survey, with 329 participating from each city. The sex distribution of the participants showed that the Bulawayo sample had 57.8% females and 42.2%, whereas the Johannesburg sample constituted 54.7% females and 45.3% males. Generally, this implied that more females from both cities participated in the study, since they were mostly available at home during the time of the survey. In Bulawayo, 45.6% were aged between 15 and 25 years, whilst in Johannesburg, 44.7% were in the same cohort. A total of 36.5% and 30.4% were in the 26–36 years cohort. For those over 59 years, the group was 0.3% versus 1.8%. A total of 75% of the participants were below 37 years old, implying that they were young and energetic enough to tap into the varied benefits of UGSs. In terms of education, in Bulawayo, 54.7% had attained an ordinary level of education, whilst 35.7% had graduated from tertiary institutions. In comparison, in Johannesburg, 47.7% were matric graduates and 23.1% had a tertiary-level education, signifying that most of the participants were educated enough to understand the impacts of UGSs on livelihoods. In Bulawayo, 45.6% had stayed in the area of interest for 11 to 15 years, whilst in Johannesburg, 56.2% of the participants had lived within the study areas for a period of between 5 and 10 years, and 18.9% had lived there for more than 16 years, meaning that most of the participants had stayed in the areas long enough to understand the history and dynamics of the benefits from the UGSs. Additionally, 63.8% of the participants from Bulawayo worked in the informal sector, versus 49.2% in Johannesburg. A total of 27.1% and 30.4% were unemployed. As such, they relied greatly on UGSs for their daily livelihoods.

3.2. Types of Urban Green Spaces in Bulawayo and Johannesburg

We identified twelve salient types of UGSs and have presented them in descending order in terms of size (Figure 2). Our findings revealed that Bulawayo and Johannesburg had diverse types and sizes of UGSs. Even though diverse types of UGSs were discovered, it came to the fore that informal recreational spaces were the most popular, with cemeteries, domestic gardens, parks, woodlands and institutional UGS, street trees, commonages, wastelands, and road verges trailing behind in both cities. Some inter- and intra-city variations in the extent of coverage were in tandem with the emphasis on the greening drive being a way to counteract the adverse effects of climate change [27]. The findings revealed that the governments of South Africa and Zimbabwe usually work hand-in-glove with environmental organizations to promote greening. To corroborate this, Russo [10] discovered that over the past decade, efforts from both governments have been directed towards rejuvenating cities’ outlooks by embracing green initiatives, as were the residents of Bulawayo and Johannesburg through capitalizing on existing UGSs [28].

UGSs existed in different types and sizes across the low-, medium-, and high-density suburbs, with bigger sizes being common in low-density areas. Informal green spaces constituted a greater percentage (100%) of the UGSs. Pedrosa et al. [29] regards informal green spaces as popular because they are free to access, and this study brought to light the fact that informal green spaces constitute a large part of the urban landscapes whilst at the same time being readily accessible for every user. This underscores that although informal green spaces are often looked down upon, with no guarantee of their existence over time, they occupy a vital niche in urban greening in both cities. As such, urban authorities should collaborate with non-governmental organizations to ensure that the sustainable management of UGSs becomes everyone’s responsibility.

Domestic gardens were also a critical component of UGSs, with 89% of the participants acknowledging them as part of their ecosystem, where they took time to engage in gardening, relax, and recoup. Prior studies [1,30] have revealed that local residents find domestic gardens important for relaxation and meeting their vegetable-related needs. In this study, this was one of the issues that every household found essential in their daily lives as far as food, exercise, and relaxation were concerned.

Cemeteries were also a force to be reckoned with as far as UGSs were concerned, with rates of 97.6% in Johannesburg and 94.3% in Bulawayo. Markum et al. [27] determined cemeteries to be brown spaces, home to spiritual solace and therapy. However, this study identified the greening of drive-in cemeteries as a tremendous move towards rejuvenating and transforming them into vital UGSs. The trend shows that with the one burial–one tree planting motto, cemeteries have become a formidable aspect of green spaces in both cities, improving the aesthetics of such areas [31]. Additionally, in Bulawayo, the correlation between gender and perception of viewing cemeteries as UGSs was statistically insignificant (df = 3; p = 0.90). Similar to Johannesburg, the relationship between gender and viewing cemeteries as UGSs was statistically insignificant (df = 3; p = 0.88)

Parks were also a critical aspect of UGSs in both cities. Past studies [7,32] have established that parks constitute much-appreciated public green spaces in urban areas. Some parks are managed and maintained by urban councils, which contributes to their resilience [31]. This study found that although encroachment was noted in parks close to and adjacent to residential areas, they were important UGSs [24].

Woodlands constitute a vital part of UGSs [10], and this study also confirmed this. They constituted a notable portion of UGSs, with over 52% of the participants acknowledging their existence. An offset of 3.8% recorded in favor of Bulawayo suggested that afforestation programs and natural regeneration could have positively influenced wooded spaces [33]. This illustrates that although mixed perceptions regarding the existence of woodlands were noted, they occupy a special place in the history of UGSs in cities [34].

Institutional UGSs, consisting of grounds, maintained lawns, and artificial turf, have also been created. Although regulated, managed, and maintained by specific institutions, their existence is guaranteed, translating to the beautification of the premises in which they are located. Studies by Addas [1] and Markum et al. [27] showed that institutional parks are exceptionally valued in creating an appealing natural outlook for public institutions. This study revealed that although the existence of institutional parks is marred by conflicting interests amongst local premise owners and urban councils, they are of prime importance. As such, this shows that different perceptions emanating from stakeholders have amplified the existence of such green spaces.

Street trees are a spectacular sight in Bulawayo and Johannesburg, as demonstrated by 57.1% and 35.2% of the participants. Venter [35] identified that street trees play a multi-purpose role in climate change regulation and aesthetics. The findings of this study revealed that despite the urge to see streets teeming with trees and for them to add aesthetic value, the existence of street trees, such as Jacaranda, as beautifiers of boulevards in the two cities is somehow threatened by human encroachment. Be that as it may, the significance of street trees as UGSs cannot be overlooked whatsoever.

As supported by 36.1% of the Johannesburg residents and 24.5% of the Bulawayo residents, wastelands were a constituent of UGSs. While past studies [1,36] contend that wastelands are essential components of UGSs, their existence is varied, as land use change has become a common thing, especially with the growing demand for land. This study discovered that although some of the wastelands were derelict, they presented varied scenery for locals, making them valuable green spaces.

Commonages formed an important part of UGSs [10], though this was supported by only 34.7% of the participants in Johannesburg and 26% of the participants in Bulawayo. Synonymously known as breathers, commonages were present notably at the end of settlements, and distinctive land use marked a transition from one land use to another. Edeigba et al. [37] found that while these green spaces are present, they are vulnerable to human encroachment. This suggests a gradual decline in the size of such areas in the study area. While they are prone to encroachment, this does not negate the fact that they are vital UGSs.

Although green roofs were the least-recognized UGSs in both cities, Johannesburg had the upper hand at 25.1%, whilst Bulawayo trailed at 5.1%. Mensah [5] contends that due to the advocacy for and implementation of green initiatives in cities, their existence is noteworthy. This study found that while green roofs were part and parcel of UGSs [38], inconsistent distribution was rife, suggesting that varied levels of local people’s perceived usefulness of green roofs and investment towards the cause were at work [16]. Moreover, this could have been due to the fact that this is still a new initiative that urban dwellers have yet to appreciate and invest in. In addition, it also calls for urban authorities to educate local residents about the importance of green roofs so that their adoption becomes widespread.

Climate was discovered to have a significant influence on the existence, growth, and resilience of UGSs in Bulawayo and Johannesburg [5,16]. With distinctive wet and dry seasons, different weather conditions have impacted UGSs variably. Characteristically, the dry season is normally hot, between 20–30 degrees Celsius [14], making it difficult to support the development of green spaces. During this time, there is heat-induced withering of vegetation (trees and grass) in UGSs, while the reverse is true for the wet season [37]. This signifies the temporal variations in the physical outlook of UGSs in the study areas and their potential benefits [14]. For further understanding of how the different types of UGSs differed across Bulawayo and Johannesburg, we took some pictures and historical aerial photographs to demonstrate this (Appendix A).

3.3. Livelihood Benefits from Urban Green Spaces in Bulawayo and Johannesburg

The analysis revealed that UGSs in Bulawayo and Johannesburg offered varied livelihood benefits to the residents. Some of the distinctive themes of benefits established (Figure 3) below include, but are not limited to, social, economic, and environmental benefits.

3.3.1. Social

While the UGSs in Bulawayo and Johannesburg were associated with numerous social benefits, we discovered that recreation and leisure activities such as picnicking, with 25% in Bulawayo versus 58% in Johannesburg, dog walking, with 10% in Bulawayo versus 45% in Johannesburg, and socializing with friends, with 10% in Bulawayo versus 17% in Johannesburg, were some of the outstanding livelihood benefits. UGSs play a crucial social role in human life [39]. The provision of these benefits means diversified livelihoods for residents. Further, the UGSs provided a platform for dating to about 45–51% of the residents, suggesting that their serenity was ideal for this particular activity. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant relationship between individuals being aged 15–25 years and visiting Bulawayo’s and Johannesburg’s green spaces for dating purposes (df = 3; p = 0.03/df = 3; p = 0.01)

Regarding social gatherings, spiritual worship, i.e., church, dominated in Bulawayo with 16% in contrast to 8% in Johannesburg, whilst weddings were reported by 5% of the respondents in Bulawayo as opposed to 12% in Johannesburg, and partying was reported by 5% of the respondents in Bulawayo versus 6% in Johannesburg. This was because most of the existing UGSs provided spacious and calm environments [40] that were ideal for rejuvenating the locals’ physical, social, emotional, and spiritual well-being. However, notable discrepancies in the extent of the social benefits were registered in both cities, suggesting a significant correlation between the nature of the urban green spaces and the locals’ inclination to use those green spaces. The vastness of the recreational benefits and their attractiveness as a function of the infrastructure available in or close to the spots [41] makes access to these benefits a varied phenomenon in low-, medium-, and high-density suburbs [10,32].

UGSs have been demonstrated to contribute positively to the livelihoods of urban dwellers in quite a few studies [9]. Nonetheless, Mukherjee [42] argues that the chances of maintaining and developing green spaces depend on what is observed to be valuable to a specific community. Therefore, this section discusses the benefits that the residents of Bulawayo and Johannesburg perceived that they gained from the UGSs. While both cities had diverse types and sizes of UGSs, we discovered that households derived varied benefits from their existence. A diversity of livelihood benefits stimulated a high frequency of accessing urban green areas, proving that there was a positive correlation between visitation and the range of livelihood benefits (df = 3; p = 0.01).

UGSs are critical in providing recreation and leisure spots. In this study, UGSs supported recreational and leisure pursuits and the needs of many households in both cities. Well-managed and maintained green spaces appeal to a wider scope of local residents’ leisure needs [43]; in this case, they offered scenic spots for recreation and leisure. This was vital, in that the locals had a chance to go for picnics and rejuvenate their social and mental well-being. Nonetheless, the vastness of the recreational benefits and their attractiveness as a function of the infrastructure available in or close to the spots [12] makes access to these benefits a varied phenomenon in low-, medium-, and high-density suburbs [41,42,43].

Dating and celebrating love are of prime importance in the life of human beings [44], and in both cities, younger generations tended to capitalize on the existence of green spaces to celebrate love. In the same way, this study discovered that many households in Bulawayo and Johannesburg used UGSs to date and celebrate love with their loved ones. This was attributed to the growing need for privacy and the serenity of nature. Moreover, some UGSs, particularly in high-density suburbs, provided cheaper options than visiting lodges and upmarket parks [10,28].

UGSs were instrumental in hosting social gatherings, such as weddings and parties, in Bulawayo and Johannesburg. Jennings et al. [45] contends that green buffers are vital in terms of providing neutral venues for community meetings and partying, which leads to social cohesion. In the same vein, this study found that UGSs were used as ideal spots for partying, weddings, and community meetings. Furthermore, more community meetings in green spaces were noted in higher-density suburbs than in lower-density suburbs, since the low-density dwellers valued privacy and reducing their footprint on existing green spaces [6,23,46]. Moreover, with the growing passion for adventure, UGSs can provide an ideal platform.

Spiritual benefits derived from UGSs are important, in that they boost spiritual appreciation, growth, and development among locals [12]. UGSs have a proven history of providing decent places of worship, particularly for apostolic sects [9,12]. For Bulawayo and Johannesburg, this study discovered that UGSs were used by 6 to 18% of households as spots for church/worshipping. While others have found solace in visiting green spaces, especially cemeteries to communicate with departed souls, Barrera et al. [9] argued that green spaces give them a sense of attachment and resilience. The growth in this trend has been attributed to the fact that open spots are flexible while amplifying the connection with nature and the spiritual world [10,24].

UGSs play an important role as educational spots [32]. This study showed that UGSs supported educational pursuits for about 20% of the households in Bulawayo and Johannesburg. Furthermore, well-managed and maintained pristine green spaces have a charming effect on those pursuing academic projects, be it from data collection/ground-truthing and environmental remediation [7,9], making green spaces worthwhile.

Mental health promotion is one of the notable benefits linked to UGSs [8,16]. However, there is no clearer closer connection between long-term mental wellness and UGSs [43]. Xu [32] studied the nexus between UGSs and health benefits in Beijing and discovered a significant positive impact on social health rather than on physical and mental health. Due to this, interacting with UGSs has been found to stimulate occasional stress reduction and mood-boosting [8]. This implies that the value that comes with an urban green space matters more than the quantity of UGSs. Hoyle et al. [34] demonstrate that, in some UGSs, affluent sports amenities and natural landscapes, be they dams or biodiversity, have been found to offer physiological benefits, stimulating a positive attitude and a sense of satisfaction. In this study, UGSs with amenities and scenic views not only attracted visitors but also soothed them and boosted their moods. For instance, gardens had a refreshing and therapeutic effect on urban dwellers in both cities. They promoted a positive attitude, a sense of satisfaction, and a sense of attachment, making one feel good [34], suggesting their critical contribution towards mental health [10,28].

The general popularity of social benefits in Johannesburg in comparison to Bulawayo could be attributed to the fact that it is relatively larger in terms of size, attracting more people who subsequently need to socialize but without incurring unnecessary costs. This compels them to capitalize on existing green spaces in order to cater for their social needs. In addition, this could also be linked to economic and cultural pursuits, for instance, through community meetings as conduits for economic development. Such insights are corroborated by [37], who found out that with the influx of human populations in cities coupled with costly standards, residents take opportunities to relax and recoup in green spaces.

3.3.2. Economic

UGSs are widely acknowledged for their niche in attracting development and creating and amplifying employment opportunities [5,10]. In this study, we discovered that job creation was the most prominent benefit, with about 30% and 65% of the residents (Bulawayo/Johannesburg) engaging in photography, whilst 3% versus 18% used UGSs for selling wares at strategic points. Past studies [1,12] corroborate the nexus between UGSs and job creation in the making and selling of wares and gardening, while this study not only identified these two but also identified mobile shops and go-karts as an enhancement of the selling of wares, as well as mobile photo studios for photography. This suggests the increasing importance of UGSs in terms of job creation, especially since unemployment rates have generally been dire in both cities [14]. However, they also presented opportunities for locals to collect firewood and wild fruits for sale (18% and 15%). Chari and Ngcamu [19] argue that farming and collecting wild fruits in green spaces have existed for quite a long time, but in this study, nature and intensity were discovered to be increasing in small UGSs. This was due to the urge to maximize the benefits from existing green spaces. This aligns with the need to realize the fact that huge outputs on a small piece of land (green spaces) are panacea solution to food security. For both cities, there was a statistically insignificant relationship between gender and economic activities (df = 10; p = 0.6427).

Increases in property values were also noted, especially in areas close to or adjacent to maintained green spaces in Bulawayo and Johannesburg, implying the significance of UGSs. Hoyle et al. [34] underscore a strong correlation between access to greenness/nature and property value, while [7] concurs that the nature of the surroundings and location of properties influence property values in the market. This study found that renting out rooms in areas close to maintained green spaces, thereby providing a good scenic view of nature, attracted a higher price on the market; for instance, an average tiled room went from USD 60 to USD 80 in comparison to USD 40–50 for areas far from green spaces. This indicates that if well managed and maintained, UGSs can increase property values, making it ideal for one to secure a property in such areas [5,41].

The upper hand in terms of economic benefits experienced in Johannesburg in comparison to Bulawayo could be attributed to the fact that it is relatively larger in terms of size, which translates to a larger area for economic activities. Likewise, existing green spaces present room for residents to embark on numerous economic activities, which adds value to their lives. In addition, similar sentiments were echoed by [37], who regarded the influx of human populations in cities as well as costly standards and unemployment as drivers for the surge in the usage of green spaces to support various economic activities. Apparently, in our study, we realized that residents resorted to creating their own forms of employment, especially in areas that residents found convenient for and strategic in terms of boosting their businesses. Additionally, it has also been through the proper maintenance of green spaces, especially in low-density areas, that property values have been increasing lately [1]. This implies that the urban residents and urban local authorities of both cities have a niche in ensuring that the economic value or benefit of urban green spaces is continuously enhanced over time.

3.3.3. Environmental

Environmentally, the existence of UGSs in the study area serves multiple benefits. Green spaces are known to be a rich source of natural herbs, which are highly sought after by locals to boost their health [24]. It came to the fore that with the exorbitant medical bills associated with visiting formal clinics and hospitals, for instance, consultation fees of between USD 15–20 [20], a considerable number of the locals reported resorting to natural herbs/traditional medicine sourced from green spaces. This was common in high-density suburbs, where households struggled to make ends meet, let alone foot medical bills at conventional hospitals. This shows that health benefits emanating from UGSs are special, though varied, depending on one’s perceived usefulness [5,14].

Aesthetics/beautifying the environment was also found to be a vital benefit enjoyed by nature lovers in both cities (9%/4%), allowing them to develop a sense of pride in and attachment to their natural heritage [5]. Green spaces are known to provide a breathtaking scenic view that is desired by many [10,37]. In this study, the very same attribute or benefit was enjoyed more in well-maintained green spaces in low-density suburbs in both cities compared to in high-density areas. In addition, intra-suburb and household variations in the enjoyment of the benefits were evident, suggesting varied levels of passion towards nature amongst households [10]. In essence, appreciation of nature was generally low, but with the growing consciousness for valuing nature [1,14], there is a possibility for an upward trend to emerge in the future.

Air replenishment (5%) was another notable benefit from UGSs, as they can cleanse air contaminated with the stench of raw sewage and make places livable. Studies by Xu et al. [32] and Holye et al. [34] discovered that UGSs play a pivotal role in cleaning the air, making it suitable for human beings to breathe it. Similarly, this study found that the residents were aware of this benefit. They appreciated the fresh air emanating from green spaces counteracting the stench of sewage, subsequently reducing negative impacts on human health. Be that as it may, the distribution of this particular benefit was not uniform [32] since, in this study, it was more pronounced and enjoyed in low-density areas where vegetation cover was denser. The sizes of UGSs were found to be larger in low-density areas than in high-density areas, where they were dwindling at faster rates [27,28].

UGSs are crucial in terms of water regulation and management [32]. In Bulawayo and Johannesburg, stormwater management and flood control were essential benefits that the residents enjoyed. Studies by [8,9] substantiate that if UGSs are well managed, they can provide huge potential to avert disasters related to stormwater. Similarly, this study brought to the fore that UGSs helped not only absorb stormwater and release it gradually in spurts but also filter the water and provided ideal sites for community boreholes. These attributes helped to safeguard the residents’ water security as well as safeguard their properties against being flooded and destroyed. However, in the case of extreme weather phenomena, particularly floods, their effectiveness is questionable [10,32], suggesting the need for proactive intervention mechanisms to be put in place. As discovered in Luohe City, China, the presence of UGSs cannot eliminate flooding, but they can reduce the possible damage caused by heavy cyclones [40]. Most urban planners are now using UGSs to construct sponge cities, since plants promote infiltration through obstructing the flow of water and cracking soil.

UGSs were found to be important buffers that prevent soil erosion in residential areas in Bulawayo and Johannesburg. Xu et al. [32] substantiate that green buffers are paramount in urban morphology, as they help ameliorate soil erosion levels. Likewise, this study established that the presence of trees and grasses in UGSs helped to bind the soil, reducing soil erosion [7], thereby enhancing the lifespan of properties whilst boosting economic activities. However, the benefit was largely enjoyed in low-density areas, where some of UGSs had pristine vegetation, whilst in high-density suburbs, it was minimal [10,28]. Intra-household variations were also noted, with those with hard walls experiencing less soil erosion than properties on open land [1,16]. Having established the linkages between UGSs and ecological benefits, Ngulani and Shackleton [14] asserts that it is quite commendable to ensure that such landscapes cater for the needs of humankind.

The slight discrepancy in the environmental benefits enjoyed in Bulawayo and Johannesburg could be attributed to the fact that urban residents in both cities are increasingly becoming environmentally conscious. This is because of the mentality that there has been a surge in reliance on green spaces for medicinal value, fruits, and air and water purification services. Similar sentiments were echoed by [10], who regarded modernity and changes in lifestyle and diet as drivers for residents to seek out traditional herbs and fruits. Our study discovered that residents resorted to using traditional herbs due to the growing concern of the side-effects of processed foods on human health and how convenient traditional medicines could be the answer. Likewise, we also found that the growing appreciation of greening as a source of shade, binding the soil, and water purification deserve special mention as some of the key elements behind the vast environmental benefits associated with green spaces in both cities. However, for vast benefits to materialize now and in the near future, the sustainable management of existing green spaces and the creation of new green spaces are imperative in terms of shaping better prospects for enhanced environmental benefits.

3.4. Frequency of Visiting Urban Green Spaces

As depicted in Figure 4, six frequency themes emerged: every weekend, once/twice a month, every three to four days, three to four times a month, every day, and annually. Previous studies conducted by Xu [32] and Opoku et al. [2] attest that the frequency of visits to UGSs is connected to perceived livelihood benefits. In this study, a relatively huge number of residents (19.1%/31.9%) visited during weekends, while 28.6%/16.2% visited once/twice a month. Furthermore, 22.2%/21.3% visited every three to four days, followed by three to four times a month at 16.7%/15.2%, every day at 12.5%/9.1%, and a few times annually for both cities at 0.9%/4.3%. This implies that the frequency of visiting UGSs in Bulawayo and Johannesburg is directly proportional to the perceived livelihood benefits derived from green spaces [2], suggesting a positive correlation (df = 16; r = 0.5376; p = 0.317) between visitation and the range of livelihood benefits, which include both socio-economic and environmental benefits [2,10]. In other words, this shows a positive correlation between visitation and the diversity of livelihood benefits, encompassing both socio-economic and environmental benefits [2,10].

3.5. Mode of Accessing Urban Green Spaces

Our findings established five salient methods used (

Table 3. Modes of transport used to access UGSs.

Methods of Visiting UGSs
	Bulawayo		Johannesburg
Walking or jogging	246	74.8	107	32.5
Bicycle	15	4.6	72	21.9
Private vehicles	36	10.9	67	20.1
Taxi	20	6.1	42	12.8
Bus	12	3.6	41	12.5
Total	329	100	329	100

) to access UGSs, with some inter- and intra-city fluctuations. Walking/jogging was the most dominant method at 74.8%/32.5%, followed by private vehicles at 10.9%/20.1%, taxis at 6.1%/12.8%, bicycles at 4.6%/21.9%, and, lastly, buses at 3.6%/12.5%. Derkzen et al. [28] corroborates that although prospective users of UGSs use different methods to access UGSs, they usually resort to the most convenient one. Likewise, in this study, walking/jogging was the most frequently used method, probably due to proximity to the green spaces. Private vehicles and taxis were used as alternatives only when the distance from their place of stay to the UGSs was longer. Inter- and intra-city fluctuations in the mode of accessing UGSs were inherent, suggesting that as the distance between UGSs and their place of stay increased, the residents were compelled to opt for other methods [2,8]. Be that as it may, our findings show that distance did not influence the frequency of visiting UGSs in Bulawayo and Johannesburg. Rather, it was influenced by the perceived usefulness of the benefits associated with green spaces. Essentially, this means that there was a positive correlation between visitation and the range of livelihood benefits (df = 3; p = 0.01), which include both socio-economic and environmental benefits.

4. Conclusions

This study assessed the impact of UGSs on the livelihoods of residents in Bulawayo and Johannesburg. The fact that this research was confined to these two big cities limits its relevance to smaller towns. To curb this problem, we included case studies of smaller towns in our discussions. It is important to note that selecting UGSs based on how close they are to residential areas may have excluded significant green spaces in non-residential zones that also offer more economic, social, and environmental benefits to urban residents. This sampling method might have overlooked some community perspectives, especially from people who do not use UGSs and those who occasionally visit them. However, this study focused on the impact of UGSs on residents of Bulawayo and Johannesburg; therefore, it was necessary to conduct this research on UGSs near residential areas for us to meet our research objectives. Another limitation of this research was its limited use of Geographical Information System and remote sensing techniques. These two techniques could have been used to identify other possible additional types of UGSs that may not have been captured through field-based methods alone. As a solution, we carried out extensive ground-truthing to verify the identified UGS types, as reflected in Appendix A.

While different UGSs exist in Bulawayo and Johannesburg, they are of different types and sizes across low-, medium-, and high-density suburbs. Informal green spaces constitute a greater percentage of the UGSs, making them more accessible to locals than any other type of green space. Domestic gardens exist in almost every household’s backyard, providing a chance for residents to align them to their liking and aspirations. Cemeteries, as a type of UGS, are also a force to reckon with, due to the introduction of the one burial–one tree planting motto in both cities. It is important to note that of all the types of green spaces found in both cities, Johannesburg had more green roofs than Bulawayo. The reason for this big difference can be linked to economic development. Johannesburg (South Africa) has a higher gross domestic product (GDP) than Bulawayo (Zimbabwe) [14], which means that Johannesburg has more financial power to invest in green roofing.

Furthermore, parks, though prone to varied levels of encroachment, form a critical part of UGSs, whilst woodlands exist courtesy of conservation and regenerative programs. Institutional green spaces, such as grounds and maintained lawns, are evident in both cities, though in varied sizes. Street trees also create spectacular scenes in Bulawayo and Johannesburg, whereas wastelands are recognized as green spaces due to the regeneration of vegetation. Commonages are becoming valuable green spaces, as residents capitalize on them to carry out their farming activities. Road verges and riparian zones make a small but visible portion of UGSs. As shown in Appendix A, riparian zones in Johannesburg are much greener than those in Bulawayo, which suggests a strong relationship between vegetation density and rainfall amount. In addition, green roofs are slowly being integrated into the UGS fold. That said, the inter- and intra-city variations in the sizes of UGSs suggest a close link to their perceived usefulness and conservation efforts.

In terms of livelihood benefits, UGSs were linked to vast livelihood benefits. Socially, UGSs offer valuable recreation and leisure opportunities, such as picnicking (25% versus 58%), dog walking (10% versus 45%), dating escapades (45% versus 51%), partying, and meetings, as well as occasional reductions in stress and mood-boosting. In all the aforementioned social benefits, Johannesburg dominated. Furthermore, they contribute positively towards the spiritual wellness of the locals (16% versus 8%) through worshipping in open spaces or communicating with departed souls after visiting cemeteries. In comparison, most people in Bulawayo used UGSs for worshipping purposes, probably due to them having a higher level of safety than the ones in Johannesburg. This leaves a grey area that needs further investigation. Additionally, UGSs are instrumental in supporting educational pursuits for those in the academic fraternity.

Economically, we learnt that while job creation in the form of selling wares, collecting firewood and wild fruits for sale, and photography were enjoyed, fluctuations in their extent were registered. On the other hand, the traces of farming and increased property value cannot be overlooked. Environmentally, UGSs were largely appreciated as sources of traditional medicines by 12% of the residents, while their aesthetic value was reported by 9% versus 4%, and their air-cleansing ability was reported by 5%, indicating the superficial appreciation of UGSs from an ecological point of view. Thus, while UGSs have a positive impact on the livelihoods of local residents, their impact remains subdued, and action should be taken to unlock their potential in the near future.