Spatiotemporal Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island Using Landsat Imagery in Oran, Algeria: 1984–2024
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methodology
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Landsat Imagery
2.3. Data Resources
2.4. Methodology
3. Pre-Processing
3.1. Step 1: Radiance Calculation
- Landsat 5–7 at-sensor radiance:
- is the spectral radiance at the sensor aperture (Watts/(m2.srad.μm));
- is the digital number;
- and refer to the maximum and minimum quantized calibrated pixel value;
- refers to spectral radiance scales to ;
- refers to spectral radiance scales to .
- Landsat 8–9 at-sensor radiance:Equation (2) presents the formula used to converting DN to spectral radiance on Landsat 8 and 9 [41]:
- is the spectral radiance at the sensor aperture (Watts/(m2.srad.μm));
- represents the band-specific additive rescaling factor;
- represents the band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata;
- represents the quantized and calibrated standard product pixel values DN.
3.2. Step 2: The Surface Reflectance Calculation
- : reflectance multiplicative scaling factor;
- : reflectance additive scaling factor;
- : pixel value in DN for the band;
- , where is the local solar elevation angle.
3.3. Step 3: The Brightness Temperature Calculation
- stands for brightness temperature (°C);
- , are the calibration constants, reported in Table 2;
- refers to the spectral radiance obtained from Equations (1) or (2).
4. Processing
4.1. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Calculation
4.2. The Normalized Difference Built-Up Index Calculation
- represents Band 5 in Landsat 5–7 and Band 6 in Landsat 8–9;
- represents Band 4 in Landsat 5–7 and Band 5 in Landsat 8–9.
4.3. Calculate the Proportion of Vegetation
- represents the vegetated surfaces;
- represents the bare soils.
4.4. Calculate the Land Surface Emissivity
5. LST Estimation
5.1. The Mono-Window Algorithm
5.2. The Split-Window Algorithm
- represents the land surface temperature;
- , : at-sensor BT of the SW bands i and j in Kelvin;
- w: the atmospheric water vapor content;
- : the mean emissivity;
- : the emissivity difference;
- are coefficients, given in Table 3.
6. Estimation of Surface Urban Heat Island
7. Results and Discussion
7.1. Land Cover Analysis
- Between 1984 and 2000: The political and economic crisis of the 1980s and 1990s in Algeria, coupled with significant demographic pressure, exacerbated the housing deficit. In response, several reforms were implemented, including the promulgation of the law on municipal land reserves, the adoption of regulatory texts for operational urban planning, and the 1981 sale of state-owned properties [33]. These reforms gave rise to the development of peripheral neighborhoods, such as USTO, Akid Lotfi, Ain Baida, Hai Bouamama (El Hassi), and Hai El Wiam (Sidi El Bachir)—see Figure 8;
- Between 2000 and 2024: Following the end of the political and economic crisis, the city experienced a notable revival in housing and construction programs, driven by the implementation of national initiatives, such as the following [28]:
- -
- The Participatory Social Housing ‘2001’, primarily benefiting the Hai Essabah and USTO neighborhoods;
- -
- The Public Rental Housing ‘2001’, deployed in the USTO, Hai Bouamama (El Hassi), and Ain Baida districts;
- -
- The Assisted Promotional Housing ‘2013’, concentrated in the the Belgaid and Es-Senia neighborhoods;
- -
- The Public Promotional Housing ‘2016’, mainly located in the El Barki area;
- -
- Social programs implemented in different peripheral neighborhoods.
These policies triggered significant urban transformation, fostering pronounced urban sprawl, particularly towards the eastern part of the city.
7.2. Spatiotemporal Distribution of NDVI Between 1984 and 2024
7.3. Land Surface Temperature Distribution
- Class 1 includes areas with temperatures below 34 °C, classified as cool zones. These areas correspond to non-urbanized regions, rural regions such as vegetated soils, natural terrains, water bodies, and the coastal strip. However, these areas have undergone regression due to the urban sprawl experienced by Oran, as shown by the results in the table. Indeed, the affected area was 173.30 km2, accounting for of the total study area (216 km2) in 1984. This area has decreased over the following decades, dropping to 148.84 km2 in 2000 () and to 66.35 km2 in 2024 (), reflecting an average annual reduction of approximately 6.76 km2;
- Class 2 includes areas with temperatures ranging from 35 °C to 41 °C, classified as moderate zones. These areas primarily correspond to the historic city center of Oran, a legacy of urban development dating back to the colonial period, including neighborhoods such as Sidi Houari, Miramar, St Pierre, and Gambetta, as well as the peri-urban areas of the city. Unlike Class 1, this class has experienced a significant expansion, with an average annual increase of about 5.07 km2, directly resulting from the urban sprawl of the city and its outskirts. In 1984, the corresponding area was 42.49 km2, representing 19.66 % of the total studied area. This area has gradually expended over the decades, reaching 66.85 km2 in 2000 (30.62 %) and 147.67 km2 in 2024 (68.31 %);
- Class 3 refers to areas where surface temperatures exceed 42 °C, representing the peaks of surface temperatures and designated as hot zones (Figure 13). These zones can be primarily located in four distinct areas:
- -
- Zone 1 (circle 2 in Figure 11A) encompasses one of the largest informal settlements, “Les Planteurs”, located to the west of the city. It is characterized by chaotic urbanization and the construction of buildings from salvaged materials. These precarious constructions, using materials unsuitable for heat, such as corrugated metal roofing and plastic tarps for waterproofing, also suffer from a lack of ventilation and green spaces. This zone also includes the Bouamama “El Hassi” neighborhood, where urbanization is marked by unfinished buildings, predominantly with concrete roofs and brick and cinder block walls. A part of this neighborhood is also occupied by a slum, exacerbating the precarious living conditions;
- -
- Zone 2 (circle 3 in Figure 11A) covers the Senia industrial area, located to the south of the city, dominated by metal structures and administrative buildings with glass facades (curtain walls), which contribute to heat accumulation, exacerbated by industrial activities and high energy consumption. It also includes the neighborhoods of Hai Nejma (Chataybou) and Sid Echahmi, which emerged in the 1990s, characterized by incomplete urban structures and unfinished buildings, primarily with exposed brick facades;
- -
- Zone 3 (circle 4 in Figure 11A) corresponds to the eastern part of Oran, where urban expansion has been particularly pronounced due to physical barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Murdjadjo mountain to the west, and the Sebkha (salt lake) to the south. This zone houses several neighborhoods, including Hai Sabah, Hai El Yasmine, and Belgaïd, which have benefited from significant housing programs such as LSP, LPA, and AADL1, as well as social housing and LPP. However, this expansion continues to grow with significant urban densification, widespread concreting, and a lack of green spaces. The neighborhoods continue to expand, with large-scale construction and earthworks ongoing. Furthermore, major infrastructures such as the Miloud Hadfi sports complex (built for the 2022 Mediterranean Games) and the Abou Bekr Belgaïd university complex complement this dynamic;
- -
- Zone 4 (circle 5 in Figure 11A) covers the southwestern part of the city, where AADL 2 and 3 housing programs have been added to an already poorly structured and inadequately planned area, Ain Bayda. This expansion has led to an increase in impermeable surfaces, thereby contributing to higher local temperatures and exacerbating the UHI effect.
For this class, the area was 0.4 km2 in 1984, representing of the studied zone. This area has gradually increased, reaching 1.16 km2 in 2000 () and 2.17 km2 in 2024 (), with an average increase of approximately 0.07 km2 per year.
7.4. Correlation Between LST and NDVI
7.5. Evolution of the SUHI in Oran (1984–2024): Spatiotemporal Analysis
7.6. Spatiotemporal Evolution of Urban Heat Islands in Oran (1984–2024)
7.7. Permanent UHI
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Satellite | Acquisition Year | Total Image Count | Candidate Images Count | Selected Images After Meteorological Conditions Verification and Visual Inspection | Used Images | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Day/Month | Time (UTC) | T (°C) | Tmax (°C) | ||||||
Landsat 5 (TM) | 1984 | 504 | 4 | 28/07 | 10:07:24 | 25 | 28 | 1 | 15 |
1985 | 6 | 31/07 | 10:08:02 | 26 | 29 | 1 | |||
1986 | 6 | 03/08 | 10:00:19 | 27 | 29 | 1 | |||
1987 | 5 | 07/09 | 10:04:53 | 27 | 29 | 1 | |||
1988 | 6 | 24/08 | 10:09:00 | 27 | 31 | 1 | |||
1989 | 5 | 26/07 | 10:05:24 | 27 | 29 | 1 | |||
1990 | 6 | 14/08 | 09:58:12 | 29 | 35 | 1 | |||
1991 | 5 | 01/08 | 10:01:42 | 26 | 29 | 1 | |||
1992 | 5 | 03/08 | 10:01:00 | 26 | 28 | 1 | |||
1993 | 5 | 07/09 | 10:00:35 | 25 | 30 | 1 | |||
1994 | 5 | 25/08 | 09:55:18 | 28 | 34 | 1 | |||
1995 | 6 | 27/07 | 09:42:31 | 30 | 34 | 1 | |||
1996 | 6 | 27/06 | 09:51:41 | 25 | 29 | 1 | |||
1997 | 6 | 01/08 | 10:09:16 | 26 | 29 | 1 | |||
1998 | 5 | 19/07 | 10:16:31 | 27 | 30 | 1 | |||
Landsat 7 (ETM+) | 1999 | 414 | 5 | 15/08 | 10:31:05 | 26 | 30 | 1 | 12 |
2000 | 5 | 01/08 | 10:29:24 | 27.7 | 32.4 | 1 | |||
2001 | 6 | 20/08 | 10:27:02 | 29 | 33 | 1 | |||
2002 | 5 | 06/07 | 10:26:39 | 26 | 29 | 1 | |||
2003 | 0 | no image available in summer | 0 | ||||||
2004 | 3 | 25/06 | 10:27:15 | 28.3 | 29 | 1 | |||
2005 | 0 | no image available in summer | 0 | ||||||
2006 | 2 | 17/07 | 10:28:00 | 26.6 | 31 | 1 | |||
2007 | 4 | 21/08 | 10:28:13 | 26.7 | 30 | 1 | |||
2008 | 2 | 06/07 | 10:27:44 | 30.6 | 35 | 1 | |||
2009 | 2 | 23/06 | 10:28:38 | 28.5 | 30 | 1 | |||
2010 | 2 | 12/07 | 10:31:27 | 24.6 | 29 | 1 | |||
2011 | 2 | 16/08 | 10:31:38 | 29.2 | 32 | 1 | |||
2012 | 5 | 17/07 | 10:33:02 | 27 | 31 | 1 | |||
Landsat 8/9 (TIRS/OLI) | 2013 | 352 | 6 | 07/28 | 10:40:13 | 28 | 32 | 1 | 12 |
2014 | 6 | 29/06 | 10:37:58 | 29 | 32 | 1 | |||
2015 | 6 | 18/07 | 10:37:48 | 28.6 | 31 | 1 | |||
2016 | 5 | 05/08 | 10:38:15 | 34.2 | 36 | 1 | |||
2017 | 6 | 21/06 | 10:37:58 | 25.3 | 28 | 1 | |||
2018 | 6 | 08/06 | 10:37:02 | 25.5 | 27 | 1 | |||
2019 | 6 | 14/08 | 10:38:21 | 27.8 | 30 | 1 | |||
2020 | 6 | 31/07 | 10:38:10 | 28.5 | 32.6 | 1 | |||
2021 | 6 | 02/07 | 10:38:07 | 27.3 | 30 | 1 | |||
2022 | 11 | 29/07 | 10:38:15 | 28.8 | 32 | 1 | |||
2023 | 12 | 08/07 | 10:37:54 | 29.6 | 30 | 1 | |||
2024 | 12 | 10/07 | 10:37:37 | 28.2 | 33.6 | 1 | |||
Total | 41 years | 1270 | 212 | 39 |
Satellite | K1 (watts/(m2.srad.μm)) | K2 (Kelvin) |
---|---|---|
Landsat 5 (band 6) | 607.76 | 1260.56 |
Landsat 7 (band 6) | 666.09 | 1282.71 |
Landsat 8 (band 10) | 774.89 | 1321.08 |
Landsat 8 (band 11) | 480.89 | 1201.14 |
Landsat 9 (band 10) | 799.03 | 1329.24 |
Landsat 9 (band 11) | 475.66 | 1198.35 |
Constant | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Value | 1.378 | 0.183 | 54.300 | 16.400 |
Class | NDVI | Area | 1984 | 2000 | 2010 | 2020 | 2024 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water | <0 | km2 | 0.17 | 0.79 | 0.17 | 1.41 | 0.05 |
% | 0.08 | 0.36 | 0.08 | 0.65 | 0.02 | ||
Urban and rock | 0–0.13 | km2 | 45.30 | 66.41 | 87.41 | 92.35 | 107.67 |
% | 20.91 | 30.66 | 40.35 | 42.63 | 49.70 | ||
Agriculture | 0.13–0.22 | km2 | 139.76 | 118.33 | 101.83 | 96.54 | 79.94 |
% | 64.52 | 54.63 | 47.01 | 44.57 | 36.90 | ||
Vegetation | >0.22 | km2 | 31.39 | 31.09 | 27.21 | 26.33 | 28.97 |
% | 14.49 | 14.35 | 12.56 | 12.16 | 13.37 |
LST | Area | 1984 | 2000 | 2004 | 2010 | 2015 | 2020 | 2023 | 2024 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<34 °C | km2 | 173.30 | 148.84 | 129.58 | 112.37 | 80.89 | 86.65 | 37.17 | 66.35 |
% | 80.16 | 68.85 | 59.94 | 51.98 | 37.42 | 40.08 | 17.19 | 30.69 | |
35–41 °C | km2 | 42.49 | 66.19 | 85.20 | 102.39 | 133.54 | 128.70 | 174.40 | 147.67 |
% | 19.66 | 30.62 | 39.41 | 47.36 | 61.77 | 59.53 | 80.67 | 68.31 | |
>42 °C | km2 | 0.40 | 1.16 | 1.41 | 1.43 | 1.77 | 0.85 | 4.62 | 2.17 |
% | 0.18 | 0.54 | 0.65 | 0.66 | 0.82 | 0.39 | 2.14 | 1.00 |
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Soufiane, I.M.; Djaouad, R.D.; Farah, B.; Djamel, S. Spatiotemporal Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island Using Landsat Imagery in Oran, Algeria: 1984–2024. Urban Sci. 2025, 9, 95. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9040095
Soufiane IM, Djaouad RD, Farah B, Djamel S. Spatiotemporal Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island Using Landsat Imagery in Oran, Algeria: 1984–2024. Urban Science. 2025; 9(4):95. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9040095
Chicago/Turabian StyleSoufiane, Ibka Mohamed, Rahal Driss Djaouad, Benharats Farah, and Sifodil Djamel. 2025. "Spatiotemporal Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island Using Landsat Imagery in Oran, Algeria: 1984–2024" Urban Science 9, no. 4: 95. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9040095
APA StyleSoufiane, I. M., Djaouad, R. D., Farah, B., & Djamel, S. (2025). Spatiotemporal Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island Using Landsat Imagery in Oran, Algeria: 1984–2024. Urban Science, 9(4), 95. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9040095