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Article

Quantification of Urban Groundwater Recharge: A Case Study of Rapidly Urbanizing Guwahati City, India

by
Jayashri Dutta
1,
Runti Choudhury
1,* and
Bibhash Nath
2,*
1
Department of Geological Sciences, Gauhati University, Guwahati 781014, Assam, India
2
Department of Geography and Environmental Science, Hunter College of the City University of New York, New York, NY 10021, USA
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Urban Sci. 2024, 8(4), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040187
Submission received: 25 July 2024 / Revised: 10 October 2024 / Accepted: 21 October 2024 / Published: 24 October 2024
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Abstract

The interaction between groundwater and urban environments is a growing concern for many rapidly urbanizing cities around the world, affecting both recharge and flow, since impervious surfaces reduce infiltration by increasing runoff, whereas over-abstraction leads to groundwater depletion and land subsidence. Additionally, industrial pollution and wastewater disposal contribute to contamination, impacting groundwater quality. The effective governance of groundwater within such urban locales necessitates a profound understanding of the hydrogeological context, coupled with robust tools for projecting fluctuations in groundwater levels and changes in water quality over time. We quantified urban groundwater recharge in Guwahati city, Assam, India, using the rainfall infiltration method and a numerical approach. Precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and recharge from surface water bodies were considered the components of natural recharge, while leakages from water supply, domestic wastewater, and industrial wastewater were considered the components of urban recharge. The cumulative total of natural and urban components determines the actual groundwater recharge. The estimated natural groundwater recharge is 11.1 MCM/yr, whereas the urban groundwater recharge is 44.74 MCM/yr. Leakages from urban infrastructure resulted in significantly higher groundwater recharge than from natural inputs. Steady declines in groundwater recharge were observed from estimates taken at various time points over the past two decades, suggesting the need for prompt action to improve groundwater sustainability.

1. Introduction

Groundwater is considered one of the most valuable and accessible freshwater resources for consumption around the world [1]. It contributes to the social and economic development of nations through proper planning and good governance [2]. Groundwater is preferred over surface water because it is reliable and free from any pathogens. However, unplanned urbanization and population growth have led to the vulnerability of groundwater resources, thus impacting sustainable development [3]. Because the demand for water increases with urbanization and population growth, it results in the over-abstraction of groundwater. In addition, urbanization alters hydrological cycles and groundwater recharge processes [4] and increases runoff and peak flows in rivers [5]. Over the past decade, there has been an increase in research investigating the complex changes in hydrological cycles and urban groundwater recharge processes, expedited by increased population and urbanization [6,7].
Groundwater recharge in urban areas follows a complex pattern. Urbanization increases impervious surfaces, thereby decreasing the infiltration process and increasing surface runoff [8]. The expansion of urban areas causes significant changes in the urban surface runoff index and urban percolation index [9]. Urbanization can increase the intensity and frequency of flooding [10]. Therefore, groundwater management in an urban area requires a thorough understanding of the aquifer system and the interactions between soil and groundwater systems. The evaluation of the hydrogeochemical quality and quantity of an aquifer system serves as a tool for managing groundwater. The accurate computation of recharge is useful for the management and conversion of this valuable resource [11]. Because of the large spatial and temporal variability in recharge rates, groundwater recharge estimation in urban areas is rather difficult [12]. Although it was previously believed that groundwater recharge decreases with increasing urbanization, it has now been proven otherwise [13,14].
In an urbanizing city, recharge occurs through natural processes along with some urban components, which also contribute to groundwater recharge [15]. Urban populations, industries, and commercial areas have been provided with adequate water based on demand. Urban aquifers can be impacted by leakages from water supply mains, sewerage networks, septic tanks, and soakways. Such leakages can contribute significantly to groundwater recharge [6,16]. As direct measurements of urban groundwater recharge are difficult, large-scale indirect approaches are often used to estimate groundwater budgets [17]. Methods for estimating urban groundwater recharge include using empirical and conceptual water balances, applying chemical or isotopic tracers, time series analyses, and statistical and numerical modeling [18,19,20]. A commonly used method for the estimation of urban recharge is the water balance approach [7]. Using this method, many hydrogeologists have estimated urban groundwater recharge and found a large volume of groundwater recharged through urban components [19,20,21].
In India, many states face acute drinking water shortages, leading to the implementation of regulatory measures by the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) to reduce groundwater exploitation [22]. A significant decline in per capita water availability was reported, from 5177 m3 in 1951 to 1545 m3 in 2011, and is projected to decrease further to 1140 m3 in 2050 [23]. Such changes in per capita water availability contribute to significant stress on groundwater aquifers, leading to a decline in water levels and increased contamination. Wakode et al. (2018) [7] observed that groundwater recharge through urban components outweighed natural processes in the city of Hyderabad. Using a model-based estimation, Tomer et al. (2021) [24] observed greater contributions of anthropogenic recharge than natural recharge to the overall groundwater budget in Bengaluru, India. Awasthi et al. (2022) [25] observed an association between urbanization, groundwater stress, and land deformation by analyzing time-series satellite imagery. Therefore, detailed knowledge of groundwater recharge is essential for sustainable water resource management, particularly in urban areas where groundwater resources are under stress [12].
The objective of this study is to quantify groundwater recharge in the rapidly urbanizing Guwahati city, India. We assume that groundwater recharge occurs through both natural and urban components. Given the complexity of urban areas, we used a combination of the rainfall infiltration method and a simple numerical approach to estimate contributions from both natural and urban recharge components. Rainfall, evapotranspiration, runoff, and surface water bodies were considered natural recharge components, while leakages from the water supply, domestic wastewater, and industrial wastewater were considered urban recharge components.

2. Study Area

The study area, Guwahati city, is located between 26°00′ N and 26°15′ N latitude and 91°30′ E and 91°55′ E longitude (Figure 1). The study area has an estimated population of 1,176,000 spread across the north and south banks of the Brahmaputra River, covering an area of 328 sq. km [26]. The major surface water bodies that contribute to recharge include Deepor Beel, Sarusola Beel, Borsola Beel, Silsako Beel, and Dighali Pukhuri [27]. The geomorphology of the study area includes alluvial plains and residual hills. Residual hills are composed of granite–gneissic complexes.
The Guwahati Municipal Committee (GMC), Guwahati Jal Board (GJB), Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) together supply 66.5 million liters per day (MLD) of water, serving 42.61% of the city population (Table 1). The remainder of the population relies on groundwater to meet their demand [26]. The study area has no sewerage networks or sewage treatment plants (STPs). Therefore, the wastewater produced within the study area is disposed of into open drains. Although some industries own effluent treatment plants (ETPs), others directly discharge the effluents into open drainage channels.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Assessments of Natural Groundwater Recharge

Groundwater recharge was calculated for both natural sources and inputs from urban infrastructure. Among natural groundwater recharge sources, surface water bodies, in addition to precipitation, also contribute significantly to infiltration. Evapotranspiration and runoff play a crucial role in reducing infiltration. Recharge from precipitation is calculated by subtracting evapotranspiration and runoff from rainfall. However, the rainfall available for recharge cannot fully infiltrate because impervious surfaces and subsurface lithology affect its pathway.
The study area is defined by two prominent geomorphic units, i.e., residual hills and alluvial plains, which are associated with different geological formations (Figure 2a). The residual hills represent the Proterozoic, while the alluvial plains correspond to the Quaternary. To assess the relationship between these geomorphic features and urban development effectively, land use and land cover (LULC) data were also employed (Figure 2b). These data were instrumental in identifying the extent of built-up areas that have emerged from the residual hills, providing a clearer understanding of how much area is available for direct infiltration.
Evapotranspiration and runoff were derived from Climate Engine, a free web platform powered by Google Earth Engine using Terra Climate data [28]. The rainfall data were collected from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) (Table 2).
The rainfall available for recharge was calculated using Equation (1)
RAVL = Rainfall − Evapotranspiration − Runoff
where RAVL is the rainfall available for recharge.
The volume of recharge from rainfall was calculated using Equation (2)
RR = RAVL× rainfall infiltration factor × area available for recharge
where RR is the recharge from rainfall. The rainfall infiltration factor is the effectiveness of a formation to infiltrate water [29]. The area available for recharge was calculated for two geomorphology types using ArcGIS 10.7.1 (Table 3).
The city has several perennial surface water bodies. Among them, Deepor Beel, Borsola Beel, Sarusola Beel, Dighali Pukhuri, and Silsako Beel play a crucial role in recharging groundwater. The water from these surface water bodies seeps through their surfaces and contributes to groundwater recharge.
The recharge from surface water bodies was quantified using Equation (3)
RS = Area × water available days × seepage factor
where RS is the recharge from surface water bodies, and the seepage factor is the amount of water that can be percolated through the soil to the groundwater. The area of the surface water bodies was calculated using ArcGIS 10.7.1.
The total natural groundwater recharge was estimated using Equation (4)
RN = RR + RS
where RN is the total amount of natural recharge.

3.2. Assessments of Urban Groundwater Recharge

The urban components that contribute to groundwater recharge include leakages from the water supply, domestic wastewater, and industrial wastewater. To calculate the recharge from water supply leakages, it is necessary to know the exact volume of water supplied to households and the percentage of leakages. Data on the volume of water supply and the population covered were collected from the Guwahati Metropolitan Drinking Water and Sewerage Board [26]. The volume of water received by households was not exactly equal to the volume of water supplied because there was a leakage factor of 15%. Leakage of water supply happens because of poor conditions of the infrastructure. The consumptive use is approximately 20 L per capita per day (LPCD). After consumption, the remaining volume of water is considered to contribute to wastewater [31]. The population without access to the water supply extracts groundwater to fulfill their demand. The wastewater produced by those households is transported into drainage channels and contributes to recharge.
In the case of industries, the effluents produced were treated in situ where effluent treatment plants (ETPs) were available. The rest of the industries disposed of their effluents into open drains, which also contributed to groundwater recharge. Approximately 90% of the domestic and industrial wastewater contributes to groundwater recharge [31].
Total urban groundwater recharge is estimated using Equation (5)
RU = Ws + Dw+ I
where Ws is the leakage from water supply mains, Dw is the leakage from domestic wastewater, and Iw is the leakage from industrial wastewater.
Net groundwater recharge was then calculated by combining the natural and urban recharge using Equation (6)
RT = RN + RU
where RT is the total groundwater recharge, RN is the total natural recharge, and RU is the total urban recharge.

4. Results

4.1. Total Natural Groundwater Recharge

Total natural groundwater recharge for the year 2022 was calculated by subtracting the combined effects of evapotranspiration and runoff from the total annual rainfall. The remaining portion of rainfall, after accounting for these losses, was considered the amount available for groundwater recharge. Since the rate of recharge was controlled by both the presence of impervious surfaces and the lithology of the study area [20], the area available for recharge was calculated separately for each geomorphological unit. The study area includes the following primary geomorphological features: an alluvial plain and a residual hill. The alluvial plain, which is more conducive to recharge, covers an area of 98.66 sq. km, while the residual hill, characterized by a less permeable formation, covers an area of 46.34 sq. km.
To account for the differences in infiltration capacity between these units, the following infiltration factors were applied: 0.22 and 0.11 for the alluvial plain and residual hills, respectively (Figure 2 and Table 3). The total volume of groundwater recharge from rainfall was calculated to be 7.99 MCM/yr, based on these area-specific infiltration rates (Table 3).
Additionally, Guwahati city contains several large perennial surface water bodies, which play a significant role in the groundwater recharge process. These water bodies act as natural conduits, facilitating the seepage of water into the underlying aquifers. Recharge from these perennial surface water bodies was calculated separately and estimated to be 3.11 MCM/yr (Table 4). Combining the recharge contributions from both rainfall and perennial surface water bodies, the total natural groundwater recharge for the year 2022 amounted to 11.1 MCM/yr.

4.2. Total Urban Groundwater Recharge

The accurate estimation of urban groundwater recharge is essential for understanding water sustainability in urban areas. A key factor in this estimation is the knowledge of the total water supplied to meet a city’s demand. In 2022, a total of 66.5 MLD (24.27 MCM/yr) was supplied to serve 42.61% of the population through various agencies (Table 1). It is assumed that 15% of the water supplied through urban infrastructure leaks [26], which is categorized as unaccounted for water (UFW). This leakage is calculated to be 9.98 MLD (3.64 MCM/yr). Since the water supply pipelines are located underground, this leakage can contribute directly to groundwater recharge.
After accounting for the leakage of 9.97 MLD (3.64 MCM/yr), the net amount of water distributed to end-users is estimated to be 56.53 MLD (20.63 MCM/yr). The potential domestic wastewater production can be estimated based on the assumption of a consumptive use of 20 LPCD [24], amounting to 46.61 MLD (16.97 MCM/yr). According to the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO), Government of India, the recommended domestic water requirement in urban areas is 135 LPCD. Since this level is often unmet by the public water supply, a volume of groundwater is extracted to make up the deficit, amounting to 91.11 MLD (33.27 MCM/yr).
After accounting for consumptive use, the potential domestic wastewater production is estimated to be 77.61 MLD (28.34 MCM/yr) (Table 5). As suggested by Lerner et al. (1990) [31], it is assumed that 90% of the wastewater produced contributes to groundwater recharge. This results in an estimated recharge from domestic wastewater of 111.68 MLD (40.78 MCM/yr).
Regarding industrial wastewater, data from the Assam Pollution Control Board (APCB) indicate that out of 2.2 MCM/yr of wastewater produced, 0.36 MCM/yr is directly discharged into drains. By applying the same 90% recharge contribution, the recharge from industrial wastewater is estimated to be 0.32 MCM/yr (Figure 3).
By combining the contributions from water supply leakage, domestic wastewater, and industrial wastewater, the total urban groundwater recharge is estimated to be 44.74 MCM/yr (Figure 3). This recharge is valuable in sustaining groundwater resources in urban areas and highlights the need to manage both water supply infrastructure and effective disposal of wastewater to maintain urban water sustainability.

5. Discussion

Groundwater recharge in Guwahati city is heavily influenced by human activities, often exceeding natural recharge processes. In 2022, the study area recorded an estimated recharge of 55.84 MCM, with urban infrastructure contributing a disproportionate amount of 44.74 MCM, approximately four times greater than the 11.1 MCM from natural processes (Table 6). The significant volume of urban recharge, largely due to the absence of wastewater treatment facilities, poses a serious risk of groundwater contamination, particularly from high nitrate loads [32], highlighting a critical vulnerability in urban water resources management. Additionally, sewer leakages could further threaten groundwater quality in the city [33].
Similar patterns of urban control in groundwater recharge are evident in other densely populated megacities of India and globally. For instance, Hyderabad’s urban recharge exceeds natural recharge by 11 times, driven by expansive infrastructure and increased water use [7]. Similarly, in Solapur, rising water consumption is correlated with a substantial increase in urban recharge [20]. In Yogyakarta, Indonesia, domestic wastewater infiltration and septic tank leakage have contributed to high groundwater recharge [34]. Likewise, groundwater quality risks emerge as a primary concern because of potential contamination from wastewater. In Kolkata’s wetlands, excessive groundwater pumping in urban areas often results in recharge from polluted sources, exacerbating the potential for groundwater contamination [35]. In Bengaluru, India, a model-based groundwater budget revealed a stark imbalance between natural and anthropogenic recharge. While natural recharge was estimated to be 183 MLD, the anthropogenic contribution amounted to 791 MLD, creating a negative groundwater balance of 40 MLD [24]. This demonstrates how urban recharge, while quantitatively significant, can lead to overextraction and increased reliance on contaminated sources, thereby aggravating groundwater quality concerns.
Groundwater recharge in urban areas varies with time because of changes in water supply volume, the development of sewage treatment facilities, population growth, and land use and land cover patterns. Hydrogeological conditions, precipitation patterns, and irrigation practices further complicate recharge dynamics [36]. Human interventions on vegetation, irrigation, and water use also affect the storage of groundwater resources [37]. In the study area, a decadal comparison reveals a steady decline in groundwater recharge (Table 6), highlighting the effects of rapid urbanization and population growth. Nath et al. (2021) [38] linked this decline to an increase in built-up areas, where impervious surfaces limit natural recharge pathways, adding stress to the city’s groundwater resources.
The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), an apex body under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India, is responsible for the exploration, monitoring, and assessment of groundwater resources and estimates groundwater reserves annually. However, their resource estimation methods neither account for water lost through evapotranspiration and runoff, nor for water input from urban sources. As a result, they advise against using CGWB estimates for cities with populations exceeding 1,000,000. Since most megacities worldwide experience significant anthropogenic influences on groundwater recharge, calculations based solely on direct rainfall and surface water bodies are insufficient. Studies have shown that urbanization alters groundwater recharge by introducing various new sources for recharge [39,40]. For megacities with populations exceeding one million, such as Guwahati and many others worldwide, more comprehensive methodologies are needed.

6. Conclusions

This study highlights the significant role of urban infrastructure in groundwater recharge, with leakages from water supply networks and domestic and industrial wastewater contributing substantially. The absence of a sewage treatment facility results in the direct discharge of wastewater into streams, further degrading groundwater quality. To prevent contamination, it is important to construct and operate sewage treatment facilities. Additionally, strategies should be implemented to reduce potable water loss by addressing leakages in the water supply network. Urbanization must be carefully planned, and green infrastructure must be integrated to preserve natural recharge processes. While urban infrastructure can significantly enhance recharge rates, it also introduces contamination pathways, particularly in the absence of effective wastewater treatment systems. As cities grow and their water demands increase, the challenge of balancing urban recharge with groundwater quality and sustainable management becomes increasingly urgent. While this study provides a basic estimate of groundwater recharge, a more detailed assessment incorporating evapotranspiration and runoff data is recommended for greater accuracy.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.C. and J.D.; methodology, R.C. and J.D.; software, J.D. and B.N.; validation, R.C. and J.D.; formal analysis, J.D.; investigation, J.D.; resources, R.C.; data curation, J.D. and B.N.; writing—original draft preparation, R.C. and J.D.; writing—review and editing, R.C. and B.N.; visualization, J.D. and B.N.; supervision, R.C.; project administration, R.C.; funding acquisition, None. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Regional Meteorological Department, Guwahati, and Guwahati Metropolitan Drinking Water and Sewerage Board for sharing their data with us.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Urbansci 08 00187 g001
Figure 1. Map showing the extent of the study area, Guwahati city, Assam, India. The inset map shows the state of Assam, India, with the study area highlighted in red.
Figure 1. Map showing the extent of the study area, Guwahati city, Assam, India. The inset map shows the state of Assam, India, with the study area highlighted in red.
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Figure 2. (a) Geology and (b) land use and land cover (LULC) map of the study area.
Figure 2. (a) Geology and (b) land use and land cover (LULC) map of the study area.
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Figure 3. Flowchart showing the different components of urban groundwater recharge fractions [26,31].
Figure 3. Flowchart showing the different components of urban groundwater recharge fractions [26,31].
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Table 1. Total water supply in Guwahati city for the year 2022.
Table 1. Total water supply in Guwahati city for the year 2022.
AgencyTotal Water Supply (MLD)
GMC45
Guwahati Jal Board9.5
JNNURM2
JICA10
Total66.5
Note: MLD—million liter per day.
Table 2. Overview of monthly rainfall, evapotranspiration, and runoff for 2022.
Table 2. Overview of monthly rainfall, evapotranspiration, and runoff for 2022.
MonthRainfall (mm)Evapotranspiration (mm)Runoff (mm)
January31.636.721.11
February50.450.112.27
March5.325.251.0
April103.4108.659.45
May293.4125.3155.39
June499.892.47109.51
July168.8136.8444.89
August152.8121.224.98
September81.4115.0710.55
October155.6101.68.62
November0.051.350.0
December0.031.730.0
Total1542.5996.3247.8
Source: IMD, India and Climate Engine [28].
Table 3. Geomorphic units and associated parameters used to calculate rainfall-induced natural groundwater recharge.
Table 3. Geomorphic units and associated parameters used to calculate rainfall-induced natural groundwater recharge.
Geomorphic UnitArea (km2)Paved Area
(km2)		Area Available for Recharge (km2)Rainfall Available for Recharge (mm)Rainfall Infiltration Factor *Total Recharge
(MCM/yr)
Alluvial plains254.56155.998.66298.40.226.47
Residual hills73.4427.146.34298.40.111.52
Total328183145 7.99
Note: MCM/yr—million cubic meters per year; * rainfall infiltration factor [30].
Table 4. Natural groundwater recharge from perennial surface water bodies.
Table 4. Natural groundwater recharge from perennial surface water bodies.
Surface Water BodyGeomorphic UnitArea (km2)Water Available (days)Seepage Factor (mm/day) *Total Recharge (MCM/yr)
Deepor BeelAlluvial plains4.13651.42.09
Sarusola and Borsola BeelAlluvial plains1.383651.40.72
Dighali PukhuriAlluvial plains0.043651.40.02
Silsako BeelAlluvial plains0.553651.40.28
Total 6.07 3.11
Note: MCM/yr—million cubic meters per year; * seepage factor [30].
Table 5. Estimation of potential domestic wastewater production from the water supply and groundwater abstraction.
Table 5. Estimation of potential domestic wastewater production from the water supply and groundwater abstraction.
SourcePopulationActual Water Supply (MLD)Consumptive Use (MLD)Potential Wastewater Production (MLD)
Water supply501,09456.5310.0246.61
Groundwater674,90691.1113.577.61
Note: MLD—million liter per day.
Table 6. Comparison of decadal groundwater recharge in Guwahati city.
Table 6. Comparison of decadal groundwater recharge in Guwahati city.
Assessment YearInvestigating AgencyGroundwater Recharge (MCM/yr)
2004–2006CGWB116.27
2017CGWB95.38
2022CGWB53.52
2022Present study55.84
Note: MCM/yr—million cubic meters per year.
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Dutta, J.; Choudhury, R.; Nath, B. Quantification of Urban Groundwater Recharge: A Case Study of Rapidly Urbanizing Guwahati City, India. Urban Sci. 2024, 8, 187. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040187

AMA Style

Dutta J, Choudhury R, Nath B. Quantification of Urban Groundwater Recharge: A Case Study of Rapidly Urbanizing Guwahati City, India. Urban Science. 2024; 8(4):187. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040187

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dutta, Jayashri, Runti Choudhury, and Bibhash Nath. 2024. "Quantification of Urban Groundwater Recharge: A Case Study of Rapidly Urbanizing Guwahati City, India" Urban Science 8, no. 4: 187. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040187

APA Style

Dutta, J., Choudhury, R., & Nath, B. (2024). Quantification of Urban Groundwater Recharge: A Case Study of Rapidly Urbanizing Guwahati City, India. Urban Science, 8(4), 187. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci8040187

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