Design of Alternatives to Stained Glass with Open-Source Distributed Additive Manufacturing for Energy Efficiency and Economic Savings
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
- Selection or design of the 2D images for the final stained-glass patterns, e.g., sketches, drawings, raster, or vector images, according to the users’ needs and aesthetic choices (Section 2.1).
- Conversion of the 2D images and creation of the 3D models saved in mesh format, i.e., STL, to define the pattern (Section 2.2).
- Slicing of the 3D mesh models of the pattern and generation of the gcode files for its fabrication (Section 2.2).
- Fabrication of the PC-based 3D design on the PC substrate via FFF 3D printing and post-processing of the 3D-printed pattern (Section 2.3).
- Manual coloring of the 3D-printed PC inserts through acrylic painting techniques (Section 2.3).
2.1. Phase 1: 2D Image Selection and Design
- AI-generated patterns: novel custom design from an AI image generator (Angel, Figure 2e), saved as a raster image and converted into vector.
2.1.1. Online-Retrieved Patterns
2.1.2. Custom Patterns: Digital-Drawn and Hand-Drawn Images
2.1.3. AI-Generated Pattern
2.1.4. Geometric Validation Image
2.2. Phases 2 and 3: Creation of the 3D Mesh Models and 3D Printing Slicing
2.3. Phases 4 and 5: FFF Additive Manufacturing and Painting
2.4. Optical Spectrum Characterization and Transmission Calculation
2.5. Preliminary Economic Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. FFF Additive Manufacturing of the Sample Designs
3.2. Fabrication of Stained-Glass Patterns
3.2.1. Online-Retrieved Patterns
3.2.2. Custom Patterns: Digital-Drawn and Hand-Drawn Images
3.2.3. AI-Generated Pattern and Geometric Validation Image
3.3. Optical Transmission Validation
3.4. Economic Analysis
3.5. Potential of 3D-Printed Stained-Glass Alternatives Fabricated Through Open-Source Approaches
3.6. Limitations and Future Work
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample and Nomenclature | Design Category | 2D Design (Origin) | Image Format |
---|---|---|---|
Notre Dame Rose Window [52] (SG01) | Online patterns (Section 2.1.1) | Retrieved design (3D model, online) | JPEG (raster) |
Online FAST Logo [53] (SG02) | Online patterns (Section 2.1.1) | Retrieved design (2D image, online) | SVG (vector) |
Digitally Created Northern Lights (SG03) | Custom patterns (Section 2.1.2) | Digital drawing (digitally hand-drawn) | SVG (vector) |
Viking Boat (SG04) | Custom patterns (Section 2.1.2) | Pencil sketch drawing (digital acquisition) | JPEG (raster) |
AI-created Angel (SG05) | AI-generated patterns (Section 2.1.3) | AI-generated image (text prompt) | JPEG (raster) |
Digitally Created Geometric (SG06) | Geometric validation (Section 2.1.4) | Digital image (path design) | SVG (vector) |
Parameters for Bitmap Creation | Value |
---|---|
Detection Mode | Auto-trace |
Filter Iterations | 4 |
Error Threshold | 2.0 |
Speckles | 1000 |
Smooth Corners | 1.000 |
Optimize | 0.000 |
3D Printing Parameter | Unit | Value |
---|---|---|
Nozzle diameter | mm | 0.8 |
3D printing temperature | °C | 245 |
Build plate temperature | °C | 105 |
3D printing speed | mm/s | 60 |
3D printing speed (initial layer) | mm/s | 30 |
Extrusion flow | % | 100 |
Number of perimeters | // | 3 |
Layer height | mm | 0.8 |
Layer height (initial layer) | mm | 0.5 |
Number of bottom/top layers | // | 3 |
Infill percentage | % | 100 |
N. Color | Color | Transmission (%) | Area in the Geometric Validation Design (mm2) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Red | 7.5 | 226.9 |
2 | Yellow | 1.7 | 396.4 |
3 | Light green | 0.1 | 219.2 |
4 | Dark green | 7.6 | 354.7 |
5 | Light blue | 6.9 | 364.3 |
6 | Dark blue | 21.3 | 413.6 |
Sample | 3D Printed Path | PC Substrate | Total Cost (USD) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nominal Weight (g) | Nominal Time (min) | Material Cost (USD) | Energy Cost (USD) | Sheet Cost (USD) | ||
SG01 | 30.2 | 57 | 0.58 | 0.14 | 0.39 | 1.11 |
SG02 | 29.8 | 44 | 0.58 | 0.11 | 0.39 | 1.07 |
SG03 | 33.2 | 32 | 0.64 | 0.08 | 0.39 | 1.11 |
SG04 | 30.4 | 32 | 0.59 | 0.08 | 0.39 | 1.06 |
SG05 | 39.0 | 74 | 0.75 | 0.18 | 0.39 | 1.32 |
SG06 | 21.0 | 20 | 0.41 | 0.05 | 0.39 | 0.85 |
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Bow Pearce, E.; Pearce, J.M.; Romani, A. Design of Alternatives to Stained Glass with Open-Source Distributed Additive Manufacturing for Energy Efficiency and Economic Savings. Designs 2025, 9, 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9040080
Bow Pearce E, Pearce JM, Romani A. Design of Alternatives to Stained Glass with Open-Source Distributed Additive Manufacturing for Energy Efficiency and Economic Savings. Designs. 2025; 9(4):80. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9040080
Chicago/Turabian StyleBow Pearce, Emily, Joshua M. Pearce, and Alessia Romani. 2025. "Design of Alternatives to Stained Glass with Open-Source Distributed Additive Manufacturing for Energy Efficiency and Economic Savings" Designs 9, no. 4: 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9040080
APA StyleBow Pearce, E., Pearce, J. M., & Romani, A. (2025). Design of Alternatives to Stained Glass with Open-Source Distributed Additive Manufacturing for Energy Efficiency and Economic Savings. Designs, 9(4), 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/designs9040080