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Background:
Systematic Review

Essential Oils and Their Use as Anesthetics and Sedatives for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): A Systematic Review

by
Bruno Mendes Visoni
1,*,
Thaise Pinto de Melo
1,2,
Sharine Nunes Descovi
1,
Berta Maria Heinzmann
3 and
Bernardo Baldisserotto
1,4
1
Post-Graduation Program in Animal Husbandry, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil
2
Department of Animal Husbandry, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil
3
Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil
4
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fishes 2026, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes11010019 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 27 October 2025 / Revised: 19 December 2025 / Accepted: 24 December 2025 / Published: 29 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Welfare, Health and Disease)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

Essential oils (EOs) are increasingly studied as natural anesthetics for fish, offering potential alternatives to synthetic agents. This systematic review aimed to summarize the effects of EOs on Oreochromis niloticus, focusing on their efficacy in inducing sedation and anesthesia, recovery times, and associated physiological responses. A comprehensive search was conducted in the Scopus, Web of Science, and Wiley Online Library databases for studies published up to 10 December 2024. Studies evaluating EOs or their main components in O. niloticus with quantitative data on anesthesia or sedation were included. From 355 records initially identified, studies meeting the inclusion criteria were analyzed qualitatively. EOs rich in compounds such as linalool, carvacrol, and pulegone effectively induced anesthesia in less than 3 min, with recovery times under 10 min, aligning with operational standards for fish anesthesia. However, some EOs caused physiological changes that may be related to stress responses. Variability in experimental protocols and incomplete reporting of chemical composition limited the comparability between studies. EOs demonstrate promising anesthetic potential for O. niloticus, representing safe and environmentally sustainable alternatives. Further standardized and controlled studies are required to confirm their safety and optimize application in aquaculture.
Keywords:
anesthetic induction; Nile tilapia; physiological parameters; stress
Key Contribution: The active substance(s) and their concentrations in essential oils (EOs) influence anesthetic induction, sedation, and recovery of Nile tilapia. The chemical composition and proportion of active substances in EOs may also influence physiological parameters and stress response.

1. Introduction

The use of anesthetics is important in aquaculture, especially where biometric activities, fish transport [1], and vaccination [2] are carried out during different stages of the production period. In recent years, there has been growing interest in scientifically validating essential oils (EOs) as sedatives and anesthetics, driven by a trend toward natural product solutions. Essential oils are complex mixtures of volatile substances that can have sedative and anesthetic properties [3,4,5], making them valuable natural products with great potential for aquaculture [6]. Nevertheless, their composition can change with the chemotype of the plant species, season of the year, place of collection, and cultivation system [7], which may complicate their appropriate use by fish farmers.
The compounds of EOs are rapidly absorbed through the gills and enter the bloodstream [8], acting on the central nervous system (CNS), causing effects such as reduced motor activity, loss of reflexes, and decreased response to external stimuli [8,9]. For example, exposure of silver catfish, Rhamdia quelen, to S-(+)-linalool (main compound from Lippia alba EO) results in a higher concentration in the brain than in the plasma [10]. The efficacy and time to reach anesthesia with EOs and recovery are usually concentration-dependent, but, depending on the composition of EO and fish species, there are different responses in both induction and recovery times [11]. Several EOs may offer benefits at appropriate concentrations, not being aversive to fish [12], preventing increases in plasma cortisol and glucose levels and improving the oxidative status in stressful situations [13]. However, some EOs are not viable as sedative or anesthetics because they can be stressful by themselves and even provoke mortality [10].
Effective concentrations of EOs vary greatly among fish species, age, and environmental conditions [14,15]. This distinction between the effects of different EOs both in induction and recovery times and in hematological parameters raises important questions regarding the variability of physiological responses to these compounds within a single species. The Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is among the most widely cultivated fish species in the world, standing out for its hardiness, ease of handling, and strong consumer acceptance. These attributes have made it a cornerstone of modern aquaculture, especially in intensive and semi-intensive systems [16]. In addition to its economic relevance, the species exhibits a set of features that make it a suitable model for animal experimentation, as follows: high resistance to diseases, enabling experimental procedures with lower mortality; tolerance to a wide range of environmental parameters, such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, and water quality; the ability to withstand high stocking densities, which facilitates controlled laboratory studies; rapid growth and an efficient reproductive cycle, allowing short-term experiments and reproducible datasets; and global availability, enabling comparison across studies conducted in different regions [17]. These features, combined with its widespread use in production systems, reinforce the importance of Nile tilapia as a model species for research involving physiology, toxicology, stress, anesthesia, and aquaculture management.
We aim to perform a comprehensive overview of the potential physiological benefits and mechanisms of action of EOs to anesthetize Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Specifically, we focus on answering the following questions: 1. What is the effect of the concentration of different EOs on the induction time? 2. What is the effect of standardizing induction time above the EO concentration? and 3. What is the effect of EO concentration on plasma parameters?

2. Materials and Methods

In this study, we conducted a systematic review according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines [18,19]. PRISMA is a set of guidelines developed to ensure clarity, transparency, and methodological rigor in the design and reporting of systematic reviews. Its main objective is to standardize how these reviews are conducted and presented, allowing other researchers to reliably evaluate, reproduce, and apply the results. PRISMA guides all stages of the systematic review, from clearly defining the research question to synthesizing the results [18,19]. This systematic review was not registered.

2.1. Search Strategy

The search was conducted on 10 December 2024, with no time restrictions due to the limited number of studies available on the topic. This approach aimed to maximize the identification of research applying essential oils in experiments with tilapia. We used only studies revised by pairs from the Web of Science (www.webofscience.com, accessed on 10 December 2024), Wiley Online Library (www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com, accessed on 10 December 2024), and Scopus (www.scopus.com, accessed on 10 December 2024) databases, considering the following keywords present in the title, abstract, or keywords (TITLE-ABS-KEY): tilapia OR “Oreochromis niloticus” OR Oreochromis, “essential oil” OR “essential oils” anesthesia OR anesthetic OR sedation OR “loss of balance”.

2.2. Eligibility and Exclusion Criteria

Eligibility criteria were determined a priori, and guidelines were evaluated based on the criteria in Table 1. The search strategy included only articles published in the last 67 years. This approach allowed us to capture all works published up to that period that reflect current scientific knowledge and best practices available in anesthesia with EOs in Nile tilapia.

2.3. Study Selection and Data Extraction

The reference lists of the included articles were manually screened. The search results were exported to Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, where duplicates were identified using the search tool in the 2016 version of the software. Two independent reviewers (Visoni, B. M. and Descovi, S. N.) screened the titles and abstracts according to the eligibility criteria described above, and any discrepancies were resolved by consensus with a third reviewer (Baldisserotto, B.).
The remaining studies were then read in full and evaluated for final eligibility using the eligibility criteria mentioned previously. The data extracted from the guidelines included the following information: age, duration of anesthetic and/or sedative induction, type of essential oil, oil concentration, and plasma analysis.
If data was missing for any of these selected variables, it was recorded as “not reported.” At each stage, discrepancies were discussed among the reviewers before a final decision was made. Data available as graphs were used. In these situations, data extraction was performed by using the software WebPlotDigitizer (Version 5) [20], a web-based graph digitizing tool for extracting data from a variety of graphs, including XY coordinates of interrupted time series data. The tool was used on data presented in graph form, and the software was validated by Drevom et al. [21].
Statistical analyses were applied to data from studies that did not report explicit mathematical equations. In these cases, concentration–response curves were fitted using sigmoidal models or regression approaches, according to the behavior of the data. The models were adjusted to the relationships between time and concentration, and parameter estimation was performed using the nlsLM function from the minpack.lm package and functions from the drc package in R software (version 4.5.2; R Core Team, Vienna, Austria, 2025). These approaches allow the specification of initial values and parameter bounds, providing robust estimates based on the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC).
Data from the selected articles were used and adapted to calculate the time from induction to sedation (stages I, II), anesthesia (stages III and IV) and recovery time, as described by Kampke et al. [22] (Table 2), when not available in the references. This adaptation of the criteria was necessary for comparisons between the different EOs. Two researchers evaluated independently the anesthetic stages described in each article, and a third one complemented the analysis in the few cases in which there was a difference in opinion.

2.4. Quality Evaluation

The risk of bias and methodological quality of the guidelines and recommendations for laboratory experiments using anesthetics were assessed using the ARRIVE Guidelines 2.0 checklist (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments—www.arriveguidelines.org/arrive-guidelines, accessed on 24 December 2024).
The risk of bias was evaluated by analyzing the methodological rigor and transparency in the development of these guidelines. ARRIVE provides complementary recommendations to the set of 10 essential items and adds important context to the study being described. Each item in the guidelines includes examples of good reporting practices extracted from the published literature and derived from different types of studies, using model organisms ranging from mammals to invertebrates. This set of examples is regularly expanded. Consulting this information during the planning of an animal study ensures that researchers can benefit from detailed explanations and guidance on experimental design, bias minimization, sample size determination, and statistical analyses, ultimately supporting the development of rigorous and reliable in vivo experiments [23].
The methodological quality and risk of bias of the studies were evaluated using the 10 essential items of the ARRIVE Guidelines 2.0, which include study design, sample size, inclusion and exclusion criteria, randomization, blinding, outcome measures, statistical methods, experimental animals, experimental procedures, and results. To assess these elements, we applied a scoring system in which each item received a score of 0 (not described), 1 (partially described), or 2 (fully described). The methodological quality of each study was then quantified using the following formula:
Quality (%) = (Obtained Score/Maximum Score) × 100
where
Obtained score = sum of the scores (0, 1, or 2) for all items evaluated in the study.
Maximum score = number of items × 2.
The mean domain scores were calculated and categorized as excellent (≥80%), acceptable (60–79%), moderate (40–59%), or low (<40%) [24].

3. Results

A total of 355 articles were screened by reading their titles and abstracts. In total, 308 articles were excluded in the first phase (23 were duplicated between the different search engines), thus leaving a total of 23 studies. In the second phase, an additional 14 articles were removed, leaving only 9 articles that were considered eligible (Figure 1).

3.1. Simulation of Concentration Versus Induction and Recovery Time

The main compounds of the EOs studied in Nile tilapia are variable, but citral (isomers geranial and neral), linalool, and eugenol were the main compounds of two EOs each (Table 3). The ARRIVE score was ≥70% for all studies.
It can be observed that, at 50 μL/L, only the EOs of Ocimum basilicum chemotype methyl-chavicol and Origanum vulgare induced deep anesthesia in around 3 min or less. The recovery from anesthesia was in less than 10 min for all EOs studied, except that of Nectandra grandiflora (Table 4).
Deep anesthesia was induced in less than 3 min at 100 μL/L only with the EOs of O. basilicum chemotype methyl-chavicol, O. vulgare, and Ocimum gratissimum. Recovery from anesthesia was not obtained within 10 min only with the EOs of N. grandiflora and Syzygium aromaticum. The concentrations of 200 and 300 μL/L induced deep anesthesia in less than 3 min only with the EOs of O. basilicum chemotype methyl-chavicol and O. gratissimum (the EO of O. vulgare was not tested at concentrations higher than 100 μL/L). Recovery times for all EOs were less than 10 min, except for the EO of N. grandiflora. All the EOs tested at 500 μL/L induced deep anesthesia in less than 3 min, except the EO of Cymbopogon flexuosus. Recovery from anesthesia was less than 10 min for all EOs tested.

3.2. Deep Anesthesia Within 3 Min and Recovery: Comparisons Between EOs

Theoretically, all EOs tested can induce deep anesthesia within 3 min, but the recovery times for the concentrations of the EOs of N. grandiflora and S. aromaticum are higher than 10 min. The EO that needs the lowest concentration to induce deep anesthesia is the EO of O. vulgare, followed by the EOs of O. basilicum chemotype methyl-chavicol, O. gratissimum, and S. aromaticum (Table 5).

3.3. Plasmatic Parameters

Anesthesia with the EOs of A. citriodora, H. ringens, L. alba, and O. vulgare induced higher plasma glucose levels after anesthesia recovery, but those of A. citriodora and L. alba reduced plasma cortisol levels. The EO of O. vulgare provoked an increase in plasma cortisol levels at the moment of anesthesia, but after anesthesia recovery, these levels were lower than control values. Plasma paraoxionase levels were not affected by the EOs tested. Plasma lactate levels were higher when Nile tilapia were anesthetized with the EO of A. citriodora, but returned to control values after recovery (Table 6).

4. Discussion

The exposure time to the EO to induce anesthesia and the time required for recovery must be as short as possible to maintain the homeostasis of the fish [33]. Generally, high concentrations and prolonged exposure lead to long recovery times and even death due to severe tissue hypoxia [34]. Therefore, to prevent hypoxia in fish under anesthesia, anesthesia and recovery times should be shorter than 3 and 10 min, respectively [35].
Overall, for Nile tilapia, there are negative relationships between EO concentrations and time to induce deep anesthesia and positive relationships regarding recovery time (Table 5). The concentration range to reach deep anesthesia within 3 min is within the range observed for anesthesia with EOs in other teleost fish species [36]. The most efficient EO, i.e., the one that induced faster deep anesthesia, is the EO of O. vulgare. The main compound of this EO is carvacrol, which can induce deep anesthesia in doctor fish, Garra rufa, within 3 min at 50 mg/L, without changing fish behavior and heart rate in the first 1 min after exposure [37]. Anesthesia with the EO of O. vulgare reduced opercular beats in Nile tilapia [5], but even 25 mg/L caused involuntary muscle contractions and mortality in silver catfish, R. quelen [38]. Apparently, the anesthetic effect of carvacrol is due to its inhibition of the voltage-gated sodium current in neurons [39]. The EO of O. vulgare induced higher plasma glucose and cortisol levels in Nile tilapia at the beginning of anesthesia recovery, which may be related to higher stress. However, in the remaining recovery time, stress apparently reduced as plasma cortisol decreased, despite plasma glucose levels remaining higher than control levels [5]. Similar results were found in Oreochromis mossambicus [40].
The EO of O. basilicum chemotype is methyl-chavicol [30]. Methyl-chavicol or estragole is also the main compound of the EO of Ocimum micranthum, which induces deep anesthesia in silver catfish and grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, in less than 3 min at 200 and 100 µL/L, respectively [41]. The therapeutic potential of methyl chavicol is related to its local anesthetic properties; however, its hepatocarcinogenic potential and the carcinogenicity associated with its genotoxic metabolites are also highlighted [42].
The EOs of O. gratissimum and S. aromaticum, whose main compound is eugenol, were also able to induce deep anesthesia in Nile tilapia at low concentrations [31,32]. The anesthetic effect of eugenol probably is by voltage-gated calcium channels/signaling, G-protein-coupled receptors, and neuroactive ligand–receptor interactions [43]. The EO of O. gratissimum (73.6% eugenol) at 25–30 mg/L induced deep anesthesia in Lophiosilurus alexandri in 3 min, preventing the increase in plasma glucose and cortisol, but increasing rain and liver reactive oxygen species levels [15]. Eugenol can induce deep anesthesia in Nile tilapia within 3 min at 50–60 mg/L, with a faster recovery time (125 s) [44] than the EO of S. aromaticum, which was higher than 10 min. Anesthesia with clove oil (eugenol as main compound) altered the aroma and taste of the filet from Nile tilapia [45], and eugenol increased micronucleus and nuclear abnormality frequency in erythrocytes [46], as well as plasma glucose and cortisol levels, indicating that it may induce stress in this species [47].
Both EOs of A. citriodora and C. flexuosus contain citral (isomers neral + geranial) as their main compound, but the EO of A. citriodora is more efficient than the EO of C. flexuosus, because the times for Nile tilapia reach deep anesthesia and recovery are almost two-fold higher with the EO of C. flexuosus. Interestingly, for silver catfish, the time to reach deep anesthesia was similar for both EOs, but time to recover was two-fold higher with the EO of C. flexuosus [48], as observed in Nile tilapia. Citral at 300 μL/L induced deep anesthesia in silver catfish and grass carp within 3 min, but the recovery took much longer for grass carp than silver catfish [49]. Both EOs do not interact with the benzodiazepine site of the GABAA receptor [48], but citral inhibits action potentials in rat sciatic nerves in a concentration-dependent manner, which helps explain its anesthetic effect [50]. Anesthesia with the EOs of A. citriodora and L. alba (chemotype linalool) reduced plasma cortisol levels in Nile tilapia [25,28]. In C. macropomum, the EO of L. alba (chemotype citral) did not alter glucose or lactate levels, demonstrating that the composition of the EO influences its effect [51].
The EOs of O. basilicum and L. alba contain linalool as main compound, but the EO of O. basilicum is more efficient in anesthetizing Nile tilapia. Linalool has anesthetic effects on fish [36], and studies with rats indicate that this effect may be through inhibition of glutamatergic transmission [52]. Myrcene, another main compound of the EO of L. alba, also has anesthetic effects in common carp, Cyprinus carpio, and rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss [13]. Β-myrcene reduces levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin (5-HT), and glutamic acid in the serum of mice, which supports its sedative effect [53]. The other main compound of the EO of L. alba, eucalyptol, induced deep anesthesia in tambaqui [54]. Despite having three main compounds that induce anesthesia, the EO of L. alba was not as effective as the EO of O. basilicum.
The EO of H. ringens contains pulegone as its main compound. Pulegone can inhibit compound action potential in the frog sciatic nerve [55]. Studies with tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) reported anesthetic and sedative effects of this EO, as well as in maintaining hematological parameters, particularly at 150 mg/L. Concentrations between 150 and 450 mg/L provided rapid induction (<3 min) and efficient recovery (<5 min) [56]. In Nile tilapia, this EO can induce anesthesia with induction and recovery times within the limits considered ideal for fish. However, apparently, it cannot mitigate the stress effects caused by biometric handling, as indicated by increased plasma glucose and triglycerides and reduced protein levels in fish exposed to 600 mg/L compared to the control group [24].
The EO of N. grandiflora contains dehydrofukinone and eremophilene as its main constituents [29]. This EO affects the expression of GABAA receptor subunits in silver catfish brain [57], and dehydrofukinone proved to be a relatively safe sedative or anesthetic that interacts with GABAergic and cortisol pathways in fish [58]. The EO of N. grandiflora shows the lowest anesthetic efficacy among the tested oils in Nile tilapia, requiring higher concentrations to induce deep anesthesia and resulting in longer recovery times for the fish. This result agrees with the long recovery time of anesthetic effects of even low concentrations (25–50 mg/L) of dehydrofukinone in silver catfish [58].

5. Conclusions

This systematic review demonstrates that EOs have great potential as anesthetic and sedative agents for juvenile Nile tilapia, representing promising alternatives to traditional synthetic anesthetics. Among the oils analyzed, it is noteworthy that the efficacy of sedation and anesthesia varies significantly depending on the plant species of origin, the concentration used, and the predominant chemical compounds in their composition. Induction and recovery time simulations demonstrated that, at concentrations of 50 to 100 μL/L, several EOs were able to induce anesthesia within appropriate times for different types of handling, maintaining recovery within limits considered safe. The EO of O. vulgare was the most effective to induce anesthesia in Nile tilapia, in spite of increasing plasma glucose levels, because it reduced plasma cortisol levels after an initial increase.
The results of this review may help aquaculture professionals in selecting appropriate guidelines for decision-making regarding the use of anesthetics, encouraging practices based on the most reliable evidence. Furthermore, these findings may highlight the need to improve and standardize studies related to anesthetic induction in fish.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.M.V. and B.B.; methodology, B.M.V. and T.P.d.M.; validation, B.M.V. and T.P.d.M.; investigation, B.M.V. and S.N.D.; resources, B.B.; data curation, B.M.V. and S.N.D.; writing—original draft preparation, B.M.V.; writing—review and editing, B.M.V., S.N.D., B.B., B.M.H., and T.P.d.M.; supervision, B.B. and B.M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, Brazil)—productivity research 301816/2022-0 to B. Baldisserotto and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES, Brazil—finance code 001)—scholarships to B.M. Visoni and S.N. Descovi.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Fishes 11 00019 g001
Figure 1. Flow diagram presenting the articles filtering process following the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic: Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).
Figure 1. Flow diagram presenting the articles filtering process following the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic: Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).
Fishes 11 00019 g001
Table 1. Eligibility and exclusion criteria for guideline evaluation.
Table 1. Eligibility and exclusion criteria for guideline evaluation.
Eligibility CriteriaExclusion Criteria
(1) studies on EOs in tilapia, (2) university theses, literature reviews, book chapters, and technical articles were not considered, (3) only articles in English, (4) presented induction and recovery times, and (5) studies found in the databases described above.(1) studies on transport, (2) EO nanoparticles, (3) isolated EO compounds, (4) non-alcohol diluent, (5) less than three concentrations, and (6) non-immersion induction.
Table 2. Stages of anesthesia, sedation, and recovery in Nile tilapia.
Table 2. Stages of anesthesia, sedation, and recovery in Nile tilapia.
StageDescriptionBehavior Displayed
ILight SedationDecreased reactivity to visual and vibrational stimuli. Opercular and locomotor activity slightly reduced. Darker color.
IIDeep SedationPartial loss of equilibrium—loss of balance in the water. Tactile response only to pressure on the caudal fin or peduncle. Increased opercular rate.
IIILight AnesthesiaTotal loss of equilibrium—locomotion stops. Decreased opercular rate. Fish turned over.
IVDeep AnesthesiaLoss of reflex activity—lack of response to external stimuli, even pressure on the caudal fin or peduncle. Minimum opercular rate, nearing cessation.
RecoveryRecovery of equilibrium and active swimming
Adapted from Kampke et al. [22].
Table 3. Main constituents of the essential oils (EOs) found in this review.
Table 3. Main constituents of the essential oils (EOs) found in this review.
EOsMain Compounds (%)Score (%)Reference
Aloysia citriodora (A. triphylla)geranial (28.97), neral (16.12), β-caryophyllene (8.50)85[25]
Cymbopogon flexuosusgeranial (50.13), neral (40.32)85[26]
Hesperozygis ringenspulegone (98.15)85[27]
Lippia albalinalool (47.66), β-myrcene (11.02), eucalyptol (9.77)90[28]
Nectandra grandifloradehydrofukinone (28.32), eremophilene (11.53), eremophil-11-en-10ol (7.51)75[29]
Ocimum basilicumlinalool (53.35)85[26]
Ocimum basilicum2methyl-chavicol (70.04), linalool (24.59)80[30]
Ocimum gratissimumeugenol (73.6)85[31]
Origanum vulgarecarvacrol (78.16)90[5]
Syzygium aromaticumeugenol (67.0)70[32]
score (%) = ARRIVE score.
Table 4. Simulation of the time to induce deep anesthesia (stage IV) in juvenile Nile tilapia with essential oils (EOs) and recovery time at a concentration of 50, 100, 200, 300, 500 μL/L.
Table 4. Simulation of the time to induce deep anesthesia (stage IV) in juvenile Nile tilapia with essential oils (EOs) and recovery time at a concentration of 50, 100, 200, 300, 500 μL/L.
EOs\Concentration (μL/L)50100200300500Reference
Stage IVTime (s)
Aloysia citriodora 42333324363[25]
Cymbopogon flexuosus140512791027775271[26]
Hesperozygis ringensNDNDND202154[27]
Lippia albaNDND82357169[28]
Nectandra grandiflora1699156512991032ND[29]
Ocimum basilicum682622502382142[26]
Ocimum basilicum21831511006654[30]
Ocimum gratissimum31117141111ND[31]
Origanum vulgare7653NDNDND[5]
Syzygium aromaticum702349NDNDND[32]
Recovery
Aloysia citriodoraND153166179205[25]
Cymbopogon flexuosus255269297325380[26]
Hesperozygis ringensNDNDND152151[27]
Lippia alba ND127247187[28]
Nectandra grandiflora14231786180618071807[29]
Ocimum basilicum282274258241210[26]
Ocimum basilicum2238282372467669[30]
Ocimum gratissimum568345138249ND[31]
Origanum vulgare223215NDNDND[5]
Syzygium aromaticum443714NDNDND[32]
ND—non determined.
Table 5. Concentrations of essential oils (EOs) to induce deep anesthesia (stage IV) in Nile tilapia at 3 min and their respective recovery times at these concentrations. These values were calculated based on equations of concentration–response relationship built based on published data or provided by the respective references, when available.
Table 5. Concentrations of essential oils (EOs) to induce deep anesthesia (stage IV) in Nile tilapia at 3 min and their respective recovery times at these concentrations. These values were calculated based on equations of concentration–response relationship built based on published data or provided by the respective references, when available.
EOSConc (μL/L)RTime (s)EquationReference
Aloysia citriodora370188(i) y = 512.79 − 0.90x; r2 = 0.80[25]
(r) y = 140.29 + 0.13x; r2 = 0.97
Cymbopogon flexuosus536351(i) y = 1531.42 − 2.52x; r2 = 0.82[26]
(r) y= 410.03 − 0.11x; r2 = 0.86
Hesperozygis ringens402151(i) y = 2911.8e − 0.011x; r2 = 1[27]
(r) y = 150,495 + (153,055 − 150,495)/(1 + (x/396,709)12,106); r2 = 0.94
Lippia alba456234(i) y = 1325,624 − 2514x; r2 = 0.930[28]
(r) y = −413.22 + 3.70x − 0.005x2; r2 = 1
Nectandra grandiflora6021807(i) y = 667.06 − 0.3588x; r2 = 0.9930[29]
(r) y = 71.46 + (1807.68 − 71.46)/(1 + (x/37.72)−4.47); r2 = 0.96
Ocimum gratissimum96226(i) y = 501.04 − 4.30x + 0.01 x2[31]
(r) y = 73.04 + 1.59x; r2 = 0.9732
Ocimum basilicum468215(i) y = 741.83 − 1.20x; r2 = 0.83[26]
(r) y = 289.87 − 0.16x; r2 = 0.640
Ocimum basilicum255242(i) y  = 0.0009x2 − 0.782x + 220.26[30]
(r) y  =  0.0002x2 + 0.85x  +  194.67; r2 = 0.9732
Origanum vulgare20 *148(i)—no significant relationship[5]
(r) y =234.26 (1 − e(−0.05x)); r2 = 0.8664
Syzygium aromaticum118812(i) y =142.1 − 0.13x; r2 = 0.9169[32]
(r) y = 171 + 5.43x; r2 = 0.9708
Conc = concentration, RTime = time to recover, i = induction, r = recovery. y = time (s) to reach stage IV or recovery, x = concentration (μL/L). * lowest concentration tested, deep anesthesia in 81 s.
Table 6. Plasmatic parameters observed in juvenile Nile tilapia at different times of exposure and concentrations of essential oils (EOs).
Table 6. Plasmatic parameters observed in juvenile Nile tilapia at different times of exposure and concentrations of essential oils (EOs).
Time After Exposure (h)
Parameter/EOsConcentration
(µL/L)		0
(vc%)		1
(vc%)		2
(vc%)		4
(vc%)		6
(vc%)		12
(vc%)		24
(vc%)		Reference
Glucose
Aloysia citriodora300-↑ 66ND-NDNDND[25]
Hesperozygis ringens600ND-NDNDNDND-[27]
Lippia alba500-↑ 156ND↑ 140NDNDND[28]
Origanum vulgare60↑ 399ND↑ 343ND↑ 176↑ 196↑ 191[5]
Ocimum gratissimum90--NDNDNDNDND[31]
Ocimum gratissimum150--NDNDNDNDND[31]
Cortisol
Aloysia citriodora300-↓ 367ND-NDNDND[25]
Lippia alba500--ND↓ 145NDNDND[28]
Origanum vulgare60↑ 161ND↓ 39ND↓ 45↓ 71↓ 58[5]
Paraoxionase
Aloysia citriodora300--ND-NDNDND[25]
Lippia alba500--ND-NDNDND[28]
Lactate
Aloysia citriodora300↑ 268-ND-NDNDND[25]
vc%—percentage of variation compared to control, ND—non determined, ↑ significantly higher than control values, ↓ significantly lower than control values, - no significant difference from control values.
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Visoni, B.M.; de Melo, T.P.; Descovi, S.N.; Heinzmann, B.M.; Baldisserotto, B. Essential Oils and Their Use as Anesthetics and Sedatives for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): A Systematic Review. Fishes 2026, 11, 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes11010019

AMA Style

Visoni BM, de Melo TP, Descovi SN, Heinzmann BM, Baldisserotto B. Essential Oils and Their Use as Anesthetics and Sedatives for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): A Systematic Review. Fishes. 2026; 11(1):19. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes11010019

Chicago/Turabian Style

Visoni, Bruno Mendes, Thaise Pinto de Melo, Sharine Nunes Descovi, Berta Maria Heinzmann, and Bernardo Baldisserotto. 2026. "Essential Oils and Their Use as Anesthetics and Sedatives for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): A Systematic Review" Fishes 11, no. 1: 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes11010019

APA Style

Visoni, B. M., de Melo, T. P., Descovi, S. N., Heinzmann, B. M., & Baldisserotto, B. (2026). Essential Oils and Their Use as Anesthetics and Sedatives for Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus): A Systematic Review. Fishes, 11(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes11010019

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