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Article

Capture and Maintenance of Balistes capriscus for Aquaculture and Conservation

by
Douglas da Cruz Mattos
1,
Leonardo Demier Cardoso
1,
André Batista de Souza
1,
Marcelo Fanttini Polese
1,
Tiago Queiroz de Morais
1,
Jones Santander-Neto
2,
Paulo Henrique Rocha Aride
3,
Adriano Teixeira de Oliveira
3,*,
Maria Aparecida da Silva
4 and
Henrique David Lavander
1
1
Laboratory of Nutrition and Production of Aquatic Organisms, Federal Institute of Espírito Santo, Piúma 29285-000, Brazil
2
Marine Population Dynamics Laboratory, Federal Institute of Espírito Santo, Piúma 29285-000, Brazil
3
Center for Studies of Invertebrates and Vertebrates of the Amazon, Federal Institute of Amazonas, Manaus 69020-120, Brazil
4
Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Sciences, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Alegre 29500-000, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fishes 2025, 10(7), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10070316
Submission received: 7 May 2025 / Revised: 26 June 2025 / Accepted: 30 June 2025 / Published: 2 July 2025
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Abstract

The gray triggerfish Balistes capriscus has a wide geographical distribution and is used for commercial and recreational fishing worldwide. In this study, we aimed to provide technical knowledge for developing strategies for the sustainable production of gray triggerfish in aquaculture systems by characterizing the capture procedures for broodstock acquisition and developing a protocol for species maintenance in captivity. Broodstock maintenance data were collected over six months (April to September) each year, whereas breeder data were collected over three months each year (November to January). The number of shipments, capture, and survival of B. capriscus was 100%. The animals grew on average by 9.99 ± 0.11 cm over 9 months and increased their average weight by 1.658 ± 0.1 kg, representing a specific growth rate of 0.62% and an average daily weight gain of 6.14 g/day. The species were fed by alternating the supply of fresh food (minced fish, fish fillets, shrimp, squid, minced octopus and crab), divided into two times, 9:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m., and offered until the animals were satiated. Regarding the structures used to maintain the breeding stock, 15,000 L tanks are recommended to keep up to 30 breeding individuals.
Keywords:
aquaculture; balistidae; mariculture; sustainability; sea fish
Key Contribution: The study’s findings highlight the value of ecological research, which includes identifying breeding and recruitment grounds and evaluating fish stocks. These investigations can help create aquaculture procedures for Balistes capriscus and other marine species.

1. Introduction

The gray triggerfish, known as the leatherjacket Balistes capriscus (Gmelin, 1789), has a wide geographical distribution. It inhabits the Atlantic Ocean, spanning the tropical and temperate regions of the western Atlantic, from Canada to Argentina [1], and also the southwestern coast of Africa [2].
In Brazil, it is distributed from the northeastern to the southern regions, with a higher prevalence in the southeastern states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Espírito Santo [3].
This species is essential in various fishing sectors within its habitats, encompassing commercial and recreational fishing in the Gulf of Mexico [4], commercial fisheries in South America [5], and is notably mentioned in the context of sport fishing in the United Kingdom [6]. In addition, B. capriscus is subject to substantial commercial fisheries in African regions and is often caught incidentally while targeting other species. In Brazil, it is considered a commercially vital fishery resource [7], especially in the southern and southeastern regions.
The reproductive biology of the peroá B. capriscus involves sexual reproduction with external fertilization, parental care of the eggs and larval development [7]. Males and females build a nest in the substrate, where the female lays the eggs and the male fertilizes them [5,6]. Both parents protect the eggs until hatching occurs in about 2 days, and the larvae, initially planktonic, develop into adults [7]. The reproductive period of the peroá in Brazil occurs mainly between November and April, with peak spawning in December [7].
Despite its broad geographical distribution, comprehensive scientific studies on this species across various research fields are lacking. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed B. capriscus as vulnerable on its Red List of Threatened Species in response to the current decline in natural stocks. Stock depletion and capture reduction in natural environments have been reported in recent decades, including Ghana, Africa, and the Gulf of Mexico [8]. This species is most frequently caught in Brazil, mainly Espírito Santo, and has recently been classified as vulnerable [9].
Global aquaculture is expanding across various sectors, enhancing the supply of high-quality food and meeting the increasing demand for fish that can no longer be entirely fulfilled by wild-caught stocks [10,11,12,13]. Captive production via aquaculture is one way to meet the growing demand for fish and mitigate the impact of declining natural stocks. This serves two distinct purposes: commercial fish production for consumption or ornamental purposes [14], and fish production for species conservation [15].
A primary challenge in marine aquaculture development is maintaining new species with productive potential in captivity, considering their specific requirements for water quality, feeding, and rearing infrastructure. Consequently, preliminary research on capturing new species in their natural habitats and acclimating them to captivity is crucial for understanding their needs and advancing marine aquaculture [16].
This study aimed to characterize the capture, acquisition of breeders and the maintenance protocol of the fish B. capriscus, to provide technical knowledge to develop strategies for sustainable production and conservation of the species.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted at the Laboratory of Nutrition and Production of Aquatic Organisms (LANPOA), Federal Institute of Espírito Santo (IFES), Piúma Campus. The Ethics Committee on Animal Use (CEUA) of the IFES approved it under Protocol No. 23185.001448/2020-44, and the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio) (SISBIO—75798-1/87024-2) authorized the collection of biological material.
The data analysis encompassed five seasons (i.e., from 2019 to 2023). Broodstock maintenance data were collected each year over six months (April to September). Capture during this period is carried out to maintain the species in captivity and develop the transport and management protocol in the laboratory. For the breeders’ data, samples were collected over three months each year (November to January), the species’ reproductive period for developing the captive breeding protocol.

2.1. Characterization of the Balistes Capriscus Capture Area

The capture points for the specimens were determined by their coordinates using a sonar device (GARMIN, echo MAP 52 CV, Olathe, KS, USA), and maps of the capture areas of the species were created based on the data obtained. To characterize the bottom of the capture areas, sediment samples were obtained with a Van Veen dredge fixed by a 50 m cable. The analysis was performed to determine the granulometry of the sediment from the region where the animals were captured, so that these characteristics could be replicated in captivity when the artificial nests were inserted into the breeding tanks. In a natural environment, B. capriscus builds its nests using sediment.

2.2. Systems for Breeder Maintenance

Breeder maintenance systems were evaluated in two distinct phases. In the first phase, 30 individuals per season were maintained in a 15,000 L tank. After this phase (broodstock maintenance), ultrasound examinations were performed to determine the sex of the fish and facilitate their pairing for the second phase. Ultrasound examinations were conducted using the GE Logiq E R7® ultrasound device (GE Healthcare, Chicago, IL, USA), equipped with a micro-convex transducer and a high-frequency linear transducer. From this point, the systems were assessed for the maintenance of fish pairs in tanks of 2000, 3000, 5000, and 15,000 L.
All utilized tanks were components of a water recirculation system consisting of mechanical filters for extracting suspended solids, a biological filter for converting and eliminating nitrogenous compounds, a protein skimmer for removing proteins and fats, and a UV filter for eliminating microorganisms. Water recirculation was maintained using 1.5 hp pumps and a radial blower to ensure adequate tank oxygenation.
The flow rate was adjusted to recirculate 98 to 100% of the volume of each experimental unit per hour. The ultraviolet filtration system utilized 95 W lamps with an average flow rate of 200 L/h and an average radiation dosage of 450 mJ/cm2. Bacterial fixation in the biological filter was achieved using polypropylene media with an estimated surface area of 700 m2/m3, requiring a total of 0.4 m3 of media. A 0.3 HP radial compressor injected 145 m3/h of air, which was distributed between the experimental units and the biofilter. The air was fractionated and diffused using a 25 mm diameter microporous hose.
Furthermore, artificial nests were provided in the tanks for breeding pairs of B. capriscus, consisting of concave polyethylene containers with a diameter of 80 cm filled with calcareous gravel averaging 1.0 cm, as described by Cardoso et al. [17].
The water’s physicochemical parameters, such as temperature and dissolved oxygen, were measured using a HOBO Datalogger MX2202 (temperature, São José dos Campos, Brazil) and a YSI Ecosense DO200A (dissolved oxygen, Chicago, IL, USA) device. The pH, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate levels were monitored using colorimetric tests, and the salinity was measured using a refractometer (optical refractometer KASVI K52-100, São Paulo, Brazil).

2.3. Collection and Treatment of Seawater for Supply

Seawater was collected from the natural environment using a 12 V electric pump with a flow rate of 17,791 L/h. Water was pumped into a 15,000 L sedimentation tank, where chlorine was added at 10 ppm/L. After approximately 3 days, once the chlorine had volatilized, the water was transferred to two reservoirs, each with a capacity of 10,000 L, and distributed to the experimental systems as required.

2.4. Breeder Capture

To obtain the B. capriscus broodstock, 15 expeditions (three per year) were conducted using a 12 m boat capable of accommodating eight crew members and a vessel master. The fishing gear used was a “pargueira” rig, comprising a 50 m mainline with 12 secondary lines attached, each equipped with size 10 hooks and a 1 kg sinker. The fishing gear used is that used by the fishing fleet in the area for fishing B. capriscus, in addition to being considered the fishing gear permitted by current laws for vessels fishing for the species B. capriscus. Shrimp, fish fillets, and crabs were used randomly as bait. Following the capture, the “pargueira” rig was gradually retrieved to minimize the effects of pressure fluctuations on the fish’s internal organs resulting from gas expansion during the ascent.

2.5. Breeder Transportation

During the expeditions (approximately 8 h), fish were transported to the harbor in polyethylene tanks with 500 L capacities. Water was changed periodically to maintain water quality similar to the marine environment where the fish were sourced. Upon arrival at the port, the fish were removed from the vessel using a dip net and transferred to a 400 L transport tank. The journey covered 10.2 km (approximately 30 min), during which water quality parameters were continuously monitored. Additionally, an oxygen injection system was used in the transport tanks with the help of a pure oxygen cylinder, maintaining dissolved oxygen saturation at 125%.

2.6. Reception, Antisepsis, and Release of the Fish in the Laboratory

After this procedure, the fish were transferred to a quarantine system, consisting of polyethylene tanks with capacities of 3000 L, featuring periodic water changes at a rate of 15% of the total volume weekly. The fish were monitored for 30 days before being introduced into a 15,000 L tank for broodstock maintenance. The quarantine’s water quality was maintained according to the maintenance systems for which the fish were intended.

2.7. Water Quality

During both the broodstock maintenance and pair evaluation phases, the physicochemical quality of the water was monitored weekly. The pH was measured using a digital bench pH meter, and ammonia, nitrite, and salinity were assessed using colorimetric tests and a refractometer (optical refractometer KASVI -K52100, São Paulo, Brazil). Dissolved oxygen was measured using a digital oximeter (YSI, Ecosense DO200A), and the water temperature was recorded using a HOBO Datalogger MX2202.

2.8. Breeder Feeding

To determine the dietary items of this species, a preliminary analysis of the stomach contents of individuals captured in the wild was conducted. Based on the findings of these individuals and the information presented by Dance et al. [18], the diet for the experimental period was determined. The breeders were offered various foods, including commercial marine fish feed, shrimp, fish fillets, chopped fish, squid, mussels, octopus, and crabs. Food was provided twice daily at 9:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. until the animals reached satiation, as evidenced by their lack of interest in seeking food.

2.9. Breeder Identification

Two methods were used to identify and distinguish animals in the tanks. The first method involved attaching colored plastic-coated metal wires to the dorsal fin of each fish, with each color representing a specific individual. The second method involved attaching variously colored plastic clips to the caudal peduncle or first ray of the dorsal fin, ventrally to the retractor ligament of the first ray of the dorsal fin. This method is frequently used in the fish production chain, and no specific regulation exists. Furthermore, the clips were replaced randomly when the animals were playing with each other and during periods when biometrics were performed.

2.10. Breeder Biometric Measurements and Sex Determination

Biometric measurements were performed upon the fish’s arrival at the laboratory to record their initial fork length (measured in centimeters from the mouth to the insertion of the caudal fin) and weight (g). The species does not present sexual dimorphism, so it was impossible to differentiate males and females, which was later possible in the laboratory.
Periodic monthly biometric measurements were performed during captivity to monitor growth and assess the physical condition of a batch of fish maintained in a 15,000 L tank for nine months. At the end of the broodstock maintenance period and commencement of the pair evaluations, fish sex was determined using ultrasound imaging with a GE Logiq E R7® device equipped with a micro-convex and high-frequency linear transducer.

2.11. Captive Behavior

To determine the behavior of the fish during capture, transport, and laboratory maintenance, the “ad libitum” sampling method was used, following the methodologies described by Fukuda and Sunove [19] and Silva [20]. Observations were made throughout all breeder capture expeditions and daily in the laboratory.

3. Results

3.1. Capture Area Determination

The coordinates of the capture points of Balistes capriscus were obtained for each of the 15 expeditions conducted. A map of the fishing area for this species along the southern coast of Espírito Santo, Brazil, was developed using the tabulated data (Figure 1).
The expeditions revealed that the species was distributed along the entire southern coast of Espírito Santo State, Brazil. However, the captures during the study were predominantly concentrated along the coastal regions of the municipalities of Anchieta and Guarapari. Table 1 shows the average values of the physicochemical variables of the water obtained in the capture areas.
In a spatial analysis, it was possible to establish the average depth values of the capture points. Anchieta presented 21.6 ± 1.5 m in depth, with the bottom consisting of sandy sediment with rhodolith. The area belonging to Guarapari presented an average value of 31 ± 11.3 m in depth, with a bottom similar to that found in the Anchieta area, sandy with rhodoliths. The number of shipments per capture location can be seen in Table 2. The physical and chemical variables of water during transport are presented in Table 3.

3.2. Breeder Capture

The use of the fishing gear termed “pargueira” (Figure 2A) proved efficient for capturing B. capriscus individuals (Figure 2B). However, it was non-selective, resulting in the incidental capture of non-target species, albeit at a lower abundance. After capture, the animals were carefully removed from the fishing gear. Despite careful and prompt removal, some animals sustained injuries to the oral region due to hook perforation and the movement of the fish attempting to escape. Moreover, some captured fish ingested the hooks, complicating the release process; in these cases, the fish were rendered unconscious via cerebral concussion and euthanized by bleeding after cutting the gill region [21]. A total of 600 fish were captured during all expeditions.
After capture, the fish exhibited inflated swim bladders, leading to increased abdominal regions and frequent esophageal or rectal prolapse occurrences. The fish remained on the water’s surface, their ventral sides oriented upwards. They exhibited a decline in directed swimming, characterized by irregular swimming patterns and efforts to descend to the bottom but quickly resurfacing.
Approximately six hours after capture, the fish displayed balanced swimming behavior and remained at the bottom of the tanks. No mortality was observed post-capture, with a survival rate of 100% among the animals, indicating the efficacy of the post-capture methodology. Table 2 shows the total number of captures per year.

3.3. Breeder Transportation

The fish were transported in two stages: by boat to the port in a 500 L tank (Figure 2C) and by road in a transport box to the laboratory (Figure 2D). During the initial process, some fish exhibited disoriented swimming (acclimation phase); however, after acclimation, they concentrated at the bottom of the transport box and remained grouped with minimal vigorous movement.
The water was continuously renewed throughout the boat transport, maintaining physicochemical parameters similar to seawater, with average values of 35.5 ± 0.5 ppm for salinity, 6.22 ± 0.6 mg L−1 for dissolved oxygen, and 23.4 ± 0.6 °C for temperature. Ammonia and nitrite levels remained close to 0, whereas the pH averaged 8.4 ± 0.2. During the various expeditions, fish were transported at a density of 40 fish per 500 L (7520 kg/m3), with no observed mortality before the commencement of road transport.
No mortality was observed during road transport from the port to the laboratory, and the dissolved oxygen and ammonia levels remained within the acceptable range for marine species. The average values for the physicochemical parameters at the end of the road transport were 33.5 ± 0.3 ppm for salinity, 5.11 ± 0.8 mg L−1 for dissolved oxygen, 25.8 ± 0.7 °C for temperature, and a pH of 8.1 ± 0.3. The average total ammonia value was 3.00 mg L−1, whereas nitrite levels were undetectable. The survival rates and average values for the physicochemical variables observed during the shipments in the different years can be seen in Table 2.

3.4. Receipt, Antisepsis, and Release of Animals in the Laboratory

Upon arrival at the laboratory, the freshwater bath did not cause mortality among the individuals. During the prophylactic freshwater bath, the animals initially exhibited agitation owing to changes in the environment, which included abrupt variations in the physicochemical parameters of the water and differences in ambient coloration. The fish were transferred from a highly illuminated environment, owing to the open-top “transfish,” to a darker acclimation box. However, after approximately 1.5 min, the animals reduced their movement and remained settled at the bottom of the antisepsis tank until their extraction and transfer to the quarantine tanks.

3.5. Breeder Identification

After the quarantine period, the fish were captured for marking to enable subsequent individual identification. The use of colored plastic-coated metal filaments for marking proved ineffective because the membrane between the fin rays ruptured shortly after the procedure, resulting in detachment of the marker. The second method, employing clips affixed to the first ray of the dorsal fin (Figure 3A,B) and the caudal fin’s base, proved effective. However, within 2 days following the application of the markers, they were removed via biting by other individuals.
The colorful items attracted fish, which nibbled on and damaged the clips. However, the animals lost interest in the markers over time, and their removal was no longer observed. A drawback of this methodology was that although the clips were effective for marking, they needed to be periodically removed and replaced owing to fish growth. Failure to remove the clips periodically resulted in lesions near the base of the caudal fin, where the markers were affixed (Figure 3C,D). The frequency of rupture of the markers in the dorsal fin was 16 ruptured markers for each group of 40 fish analyzed, while no rupture was observed for the markers kept in the caudal fins.

3.6. Breeder Feeding

The animals were fed twice daily, at 9:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m., and consumed approximately 8% of the biomass. This was obtained by dividing the total food offered by the total fish biomass in the tank, then multiplying it by 100. All B. capriscus individuals could feed in captivity by the second day of quarantine, with only a few individuals feeding on the first day of adaptation. This species preferred feeding on the surface or during the descent of food to the bottom. After feeding, the tanks were siphoned and cleaned immediately.
All the offered items were consumed among the tested foods. However, fresh foods, such as fish fillets and chopped shrimp, were the most appealing to the fish. In contrast, commercial marine fish feed was less attractive than fresh food; however, it was consumed when fresh food was not simultaneously provided.
Before feeding, the fish interacted with the handlers. The school congregated where food was routinely offered and remained near the handler’s position in the tank. Upon satiation, the fish retreated, exhibited reduced activity, and stayed near the bottom of the tank.

3.7. Breeder Biometric Measurements

The animals grew on average by 9.99 ± 0.11 cm over 9 months and increased their average weight by 1.658 ± 0.1 kg, representing a specific growth rate of 0.62% and an average daily weight gain of 6.14 g/day. These results indicate that feeding management and water quality were adequate for maintaining the species, demonstrating successful growth and weight gain for individuals from the natural environment under the applied captive management conditions.

3.8. Systems Used for Breeder Maintenance

Throughout the maintenance period of B. capriscus groups, no significant mortality was observed at the tested density. However, opportunistic diseases manifested at two separate intervals. Aggressive behavior was observed in 30 fish at two distinct times. The first instance involved dominant fish chasing submissive ones during feeding, causing the latter to be scared away from the feeding area. No injuries resulted from this behavior. The second occurrence of aggression was noted before the breeding season, with dominant fish establishing territories around artificial nest structures. Submissive fish were not allowed near the nests, and the dominant fish displayed aggression towards any fish that approached.
The species tended to bite the structures within the tanks, including the folds of the vinyl liner covering the tank and the porous hoses used in the aeration system. Soft and flexible structures within tanks should be avoided. Regarding the maintenance of fish in systems with a single-sexed pair, the behavioral pattern was similar to that observed in fish maintained at higher densities. However, males predominantly occupied the nest’ locations (Figure 4C). Three spawning events were recorded during the maintenance of pairs in different tanks: one in the 2022 season and two in the 2023 season. The first occurred in the 15,000 L tank (Figure 4A), and the subsequent spawnings happened in the 3000 L and 2000 L tanks (Figure 4B). The spontaneous reproduction of the species within the utilized systems illustrates the effectiveness of the experimental frameworks deployed for breeder maintenance.
Consequently, all evaluated water recirculation systems effectively maintained individuals at a density of two fish (a pair). Moreover, the 15,000 L tank proved efficient for keeping a group of 30 breeders.

4. Discussion

The established capture area for B. capriscus in this study was confined to the southern coast of Espírito Santo State, corresponding to the region of peak commercial capture of the species, spanning the municipalities of Piúma and Guarapari, as reported by IP/UFES [22]. The efficiency of captures in different areas informs species capture and provides crucial data for conservation projects aimed at preserving natural populations of the species.

4.1. Fish Capture

The use of the “pargueira” fishing gear proved efficient for capturing B. capriscus during all conducted expeditions. However, minor injuries were observed owing to perforation of the oral region caused by the hook. Muoneke and Childress [23] say such injuries can be gateways for opportunistic diseases. Furthermore, the entire capture, transportation, and initial maintenance in captivity induce stress, potentially diminishing the immune competence of the individuals and increasing their disease susceptibility [24].
The studied species is commercially captured in southeastern Brazil using “pargueira” gear and bottom trawl nets [25,26]. Alternative capture methods, such as those described by Ribeiro [27] and push nets described by Vianna et al. [28], could be tested to reduce bodily injuries from hook perforations. Inflated swim bladders during the capture process are prevalent in species captured from deep regions and occur because of the expansion of gases caused by an abrupt decrease in pressure between the deeper capture zones and the water surface [29]. This can also result in a loss of balance in fish when they are placed in transport containers.

4.2. Fish Transport

Fish transport is critical in acquiring specimens for breeding stock and managing individuals in captivity [30]. The use of 500 L polyethylene tanks for transporting B. capriscus proved effective. The dark color of the transport tank reduced the incident light on the animals, creating a more comfortable environment and reducing agitation among individuals. Increased agitation during transport may lead to increased oxygen consumption and bodily harm. This observation aligns with those of Alvarez-Lajonchère and Hernándéz-Molejón [31], advocating for the use of dark-colored tanks to reduce the animals’ perception of external stimuli, thereby preserving their tranquility during transport.
The physicochemical variables measured during transport in the vessel did not exhibit any significant differences compared to seawater. The high rate of water renewal throughout the transport period facilitated the constant maintenance of the physicochemical parameters. The relatively short duration of land transport, combined with the addition of pure oxygen and low fish density, likely contributed to the absence of significant changes in the water quality for most physicochemical variables.
However, the total ammonia levels were elevated during transport to the laboratory. Substantial mucus production on fish skin and the release of feces and excreta may have contributed to increased nitrogenous compounds. Low fish densities should be used for transporting the species in a system without water exchange, or products that can adsorb the ammonia produced during transportation should be used, as suggested by Bem-Asher et al. [32].

4.3. Acclimation and Antisepsis

Preventing and controlling diseases in fish production environments is crucial for maintaining animal health. Nowak [33] asserts that disease outbreaks during production can incur increased medication costs, resulting in economic losses. A freshwater therapeutic bath was chosen for this study because of its proven effectiveness in controlling ectoparasites in marine fish species [34]. Although quantification of parasites in the broodstock was not conducted under these experimental conditions, freshwater baths can be preventively and safely used for B. capriscus. This is supported by the absence of scraping behavior and opercular hyperventilation, indicative of ectoparasite infections. The absence of death during and after disinfection endorses the safety of this method for treating B. capriscus.

4.4. Animal Identification

Individual fish identification allows the characterization of specific information for each individual, which is essential for identifying breeders. External markers used on fish are readily applicable, visibly discernible, and typically more economical and accessible [35].
Although using plastic clips for marking B. capriscus was effective, it had drawbacks, such as removal by biting and causing injuries at the base of the tail and dorsal fin. Future studies should consider using internal markers to address these issues. According to Smith et al. [36], internal markers are effective for various fish species, although they require complex equipment for reading.

4.5. Breeder Feeding

Feeding is a key aspect of maintaining fish breeders in captivity. Establishing appropriate daily food items and quantities for satiety is crucial for successful captive breeding. However, Rodrigues [37] indicates that limited knowledge exists regarding the nutritional requirements of sexually mature or adult fish, complicating the formulation of specific dietary protocols for breeders. The feeding strategy employed for B. capriscus in captivity was effective because the diet resulted in rapid weight gain in the fish throughout the experimental period.
According to Bromage [38], nutrition influences reproductive factors, such as gonadal development and fecundity. This supports the effectiveness of the feeding regimen for B. capriscus during the experimental period, as evidenced by the observed spawning and viable larvae in consecutive seasons, which indirectly indicate adequate nutritional conditions.
Although the feeding strategy effectively promoted growth and reproduction, it is necessary to establish a balanced diet with a consistent nutritional composition. Ensuring a balanced diet and appropriate feeding management enhances animal nutrient utilization and reduces the impact of waste production, thereby contributing to the maintenance of water quality [39]. Moreover, using fresh food complicates the assessment of available nutrients, as the nutritional composition may fluctuate based on various factors, such as fish age, sex, and capture time [40]. Therefore, testing different diet formulations is essential for optimizing the performance of B. capriscus breeders and maintaining good water quality.

4.6. Systems Used for Breeder Maintenance

The selection of a system structure for maintaining breeders can influence the success of adapting a species to a captive environment. The system’s design determines the environmental characteristics, which subsequently affect the behavior of breeders [41]. The results showed that B. capriscus adapted to the captive conditions. However, disease occurrence was observed in the animals. Based on the clinical signs presented, it was correlated with opportunistic pathogens, as it was restricted to moments following stressful handling, such as handling in low temperature periods and ultrasound. Clinically, the animals showed excess mucus production, lethargy, reduced food intake, and in some cases, skin lesions. Spontaneous resolution occurred after 7 to 10 days.
Regarding the aggressive behavior observed during fish maintenance, simultaneous feeding strategies at different tank points could reduce food disputes and aggression. Regarding the chasing behavior observed before reproduction, including a greater number of artificial nests could reduce competition for territory and thus decrease aggression between individuals. Artificial nests were added to the tanks to encourage pair formation and subsequent reproduction. The addition of artificial nests increased the aggressiveness of individuals due to the establishment of territories.
Breeders’ growth and weight gain under experimental conditions demonstrated the efficiency of the 15,000 L tanks in maintaining breeder stocks. However, observing biting behavior towards soft objects in the tanks, such as aeration hoses, suggests that less durable materials should be avoided to prevent fish ingestion.
Using artificial nests with rhodolith gravel and bivalve shell fragments in breeder tanks proved effective because all three observed spawning events occurred in these structures. Environmental characteristics influence the behavior of stocked animals and serve as stimuli [41]. Various authors have considered the use of substrates as a strategy of great importance because they can act as natural spawning stimuli, particularly for species that spawn in nests or structures [42].
The results of this study reinforce the importance of ecological studies, including assessments of fish stocks and identification of breeding and recruitment areas. These studies can support the development of aquaculture protocols for B. capriscus and other marine species.

5. Conclusions

The results of this study indicated the successful capture of B. capriscus individuals in their natural environment and the determination of their capture area. The methods applied for transport, acclimatization and prophylaxis of the species upon arrival at the laboratory were adequate, and there was no mortality during the process. The species can be fed alternating fresh foods, such as minced fish, fish fillets, shrimp, squid, octopus, and crabs. Commercial feed for marine fish showed little interest in this species.
Regarding the structures for maintaining spawners, 15,000 L tanks are recommended for up to 30 spawning individuals, and a 3000 L tank is recommended for maintaining pairs. Further studies are needed to determine the nutritional needs of this species in captivity, which will allow the provision of a more efficient diet. The protocol provided in this work can also be applied to other species in production systems, with some adaptations.

Author Contributions

D.d.C.M.: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. L.D.C.: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing. A.B.d.S.: Funding acquisition, Project administration. M.F.P.: Funding acquisition, Project administration. T.Q.d.M.: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. J.S.-N.: Writing—review. P.H.R.A.: Writing—review & editing. A.T.d.O.: Writing—review & editing. M.A.d.S.: Writing—review & editing. H.D.L.: Conceptualization, Supervision, Project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors declare that financial support was received for the research and publication of this article. Subsea7, an engineering, construction, and services company serving the offshore energy sector, provided funding for the development and publication of this work. The Blue Ocean Research Alliance® (BORA) supported this research article and aims to build knowledge and understanding of the world’s oceans to create a sustainable marine future. The Alliance brings science and industry together to enable greater global access to scientific research.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The Ethics Committee on Animal Use (CEUA) of the IFES approved it under Protocol No. 23185.001448/2020-44, and the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio) (SISBIO—75798-1/87024-2) authorized the collection of biological material.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data can be requested from the authors upon request.

Acknowledgments

They would like to thank the Instituto Federal do Espírito Santo (Piúma campus) for providing infrastructure during the study. Subsea7 and Blue Ocean Research Alliance.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that this study received funding from Subsea7. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication.

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Figure 1. Spatial location of the fishing points for B. capriscus in the southern region of Espírito Santo State, Brazil.
Figure 1. Spatial location of the fishing points for B. capriscus in the southern region of Espírito Santo State, Brazil.
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Figure 2. (A) Fishing gear “pargueira”; (B) freshly captured Balistes capriscus individual; (C) 500 L tank for transportation on the vessel; and (D) B. capriscus individuals in “transfish” during road transport. Bar 10 cm.
Figure 2. (A) Fishing gear “pargueira”; (B) freshly captured Balistes capriscus individual; (C) 500 L tank for transportation on the vessel; and (D) B. capriscus individuals in “transfish” during road transport. Bar 10 cm.
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Figure 3. (A) Installation of marker on the dorsal fin; (B) Balistes capriscus specimen with dorsal fin marking; and (C,D) lesions caused using markers. Bar = 3 cm.
Figure 3. (A) Installation of marker on the dorsal fin; (B) Balistes capriscus specimen with dorsal fin marking; and (C,D) lesions caused using markers. Bar = 3 cm.
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Figure 4. (A) 15,000 L tank for breeder and pair maintenance; (B) 3000 L tank for pair maintenance; (C) artificial gravel nest; and (D) food preparation for Balistes capriscus.
Figure 4. (A) 15,000 L tank for breeder and pair maintenance; (B) 3000 L tank for pair maintenance; (C) artificial gravel nest; and (D) food preparation for Balistes capriscus.
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Table 1. Physicochemical variables of water in capture areas of Balistes capriscus in the south of Espírito Santo, Brazil.
Table 1. Physicochemical variables of water in capture areas of Balistes capriscus in the south of Espírito Santo, Brazil.
LocalityYearTemperature
(°C)		Dissolved Oxygen
(mg L−1)		Salinity
(ppm)		pHAmmonia Total (ppm)
Anchieta201923.43.633.08.30
202023.23.634.08.20
202123.23.632.08.40
202223.03.732.08.40
202323.03.731.08.30
Guarapari201923.44.338.08.40
202023.24.337.08.60
202123.24.237.58.70
202223.04.536.58.70
202323.04.537.58.60
Table 2. Average number of shipments, capture, and survival of Balistes capriscus.
Table 2. Average number of shipments, capture, and survival of Balistes capriscus.
YearCaptureNumber of ShipmentsSurvival During Transport
Balistes capriscusGuarapariAnchietaBoatRoad
201912021100%100%
202012012100%100%
202112003100%100%
202212012100%100%
202312012100%100%
Table 3. Mean and standard deviation of the water’s physical and chemical variables during the transport of Balistes capriscus.
Table 3. Mean and standard deviation of the water’s physical and chemical variables during the transport of Balistes capriscus.
TransportationTemperature
(°C)		Dissolved Oxygen
(mg L−1)		Salinity
(ppm)		pHAmmonia Total (ppm)
Boat23.4 ± 0.66.22 ± 0.635.5 ± 0.58.4 ± 0.20
Road25.8 ± 0.75.11 ± 0.833.5 ± 0.38.1 ± 0.33.0
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MDPI and ACS Style

Mattos, D.d.C.; Cardoso, L.D.; de Souza, A.B.; Polese, M.F.; de Morais, T.Q.; Santander-Neto, J.; Aride, P.H.R.; de Oliveira, A.T.; da Silva, M.A.; Lavander, H.D. Capture and Maintenance of Balistes capriscus for Aquaculture and Conservation. Fishes 2025, 10, 316. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10070316

AMA Style

Mattos DdC, Cardoso LD, de Souza AB, Polese MF, de Morais TQ, Santander-Neto J, Aride PHR, de Oliveira AT, da Silva MA, Lavander HD. Capture and Maintenance of Balistes capriscus for Aquaculture and Conservation. Fishes. 2025; 10(7):316. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10070316

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mattos, Douglas da Cruz, Leonardo Demier Cardoso, André Batista de Souza, Marcelo Fanttini Polese, Tiago Queiroz de Morais, Jones Santander-Neto, Paulo Henrique Rocha Aride, Adriano Teixeira de Oliveira, Maria Aparecida da Silva, and Henrique David Lavander. 2025. "Capture and Maintenance of Balistes capriscus for Aquaculture and Conservation" Fishes 10, no. 7: 316. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10070316

APA Style

Mattos, D. d. C., Cardoso, L. D., de Souza, A. B., Polese, M. F., de Morais, T. Q., Santander-Neto, J., Aride, P. H. R., de Oliveira, A. T., da Silva, M. A., & Lavander, H. D. (2025). Capture and Maintenance of Balistes capriscus for Aquaculture and Conservation. Fishes, 10(7), 316. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10070316

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