Pachayachachiq “The World Reveals Itself”: Philosophical Thought in Pre-Hispanic Society

Abstract

The research explores the possibility of understanding pre-Hispanic Andean philosophical thought through the use of Quechua terms such as pacha (world, universe, space and time) and pachayachachiq (the world that reveals itself). The aim has been to philosophically analyse how the runas (persons) understood their existence within a dynamic cosmos. Methodologically, the research follows a qualitative approach and hermeneutic method. The documentary recording technique was adopted for the linguistic, historical and ethnographic sources, which enabled a critical interpretation of these sources to be carried out. Furthermore, the results have shown that the term pacha constitutes a complex ontological category that integrates time, space and the generative force of energies, differing from Western conceptions. Pachayachachiq, meanwhile, emerges as a socially constructed knowledge based on the observation of the natural cycle. Andean society is therefore understood through its tetradic structure: (hanan pacha: the world above, kay pacha: the world here, uku pacha: the world within, and kuteq pacha: the changing world); these structures are articulated under principles of complementarity–reciprocity. It is concluded that the exploration of pachayachachiq has made it possible to become aware of a relational ontology that enables the realisation of a life cycle of nature, humanity and the universe. This way of understanding the world calls into question the dualist postulates of the Western worldview and proposes developing a conception of reality in relation to an endless change, thereby enriching lived experience. This way of understanding things calls into question the dualist postulates of the Western worldview and proposes bringing things closer to a conception of reality governed by constant relation, endless change and the enrichment of one’s own vital experience—a contribution to intercultural philosophy.

1. Introduction

The categories pacha and pachayachachiq are conceptual categories that enable an approach to Andean philosophical thought and its contribution to contemporary discussions surrounding the relations between humankind, nature and the cosmos, owing to the existence of a profound socio-environmental and existential crisis. The thought of the runas therefore offers an alternative type of reading that allows our conceptions of being to be understood differently and calls into question the ontological categories of the Western tradition (Paucca 2019, p. 8). From this point of view, pacha is conceived as a cosmological category that interweaves time, space and the generative force of existence. It must not, therefore, be reduced to a single meaning, since it comprises “a very broad cosmological concept” (Mazzi 2022, p. 41). Pachayachachiq, meanwhile, is understood as its complementary counterpart, as well as a body of knowledge worthy of study based on the observation of pacha in its transformational dimension.

Accordingly, the research proposes a new reorganisation of Inca cosmology through a tetradic conception made up of hanan pacha, kay pacha, uku pacha and kuteq pacha. The proposal of this last category makes it possible to develop the sense of Andean cosmological order on the basis of the cyclical character of Andean time, articulated with the principles of complementarity and reciprocity that constitute a relational ontology. From this perspective, reality is articulated through a network of interdependencies between people, nature and the cosmos. The main result of the work therefore consists of highlighting the Quechua term pachayachachiq as an expression of a relational ontology (Paucca 2019, p. 47), capable of challenging the dualisms of the Western tradition, as well as contributing to the development of intercultural philosophy and current indigenous epistemologies (Quintanilla et al. 2023).

1.1. Pacha as an Ontological Foundation

From both a philological and philosophical perspective, pacha is a word specific and particular to the Quechua language, originating from pre-Hispanic Andean societies. As is the case for many words in this language, it constitutes a polysemic and multivocal term, with different meanings depending on the cultural context, the historical narrative, and the type of discourse employed by the speaking subject. Generally, pacha refers to the world or universe, and also to shelter or clothing; in both cases it conveys the idea of that which envelops, thereby becoming the totality of what exists. This semantic polysemy gives pacha the status of one of the categories of Andean philosophical thought; its meaning, beyond the strictly cosmological, also links ontological and epistemological dimensions related to matter, time, space and life, from which an organising principle was constructed through which the runas understood existence.

The term pachayachachiq is one of the terms that makes it possible to recover the originality of the thought of the runas of this society. In this sense, this term replaces the terminology of “cosmovision” commonly used within the canons of philosophy by certain thinkers, such as Depaz (2015). With regard to its structure and content within linguistic reflection, the term pacha illustrates the wisdom of the runas, particularly of pre-Hispanic society, in relation to lexical matters, culture and the cosmos. From Gonçalez Holguín’s ([1608] 2007, p. 184) viewpoint, the notion of pacha accounts for three dimensions: temporal, terrestrial and locational. In this sense, pachayachachiq can be interpreted as that knowledge which articulates all these dimensions into a totality, whereby reality is such that it is understood insofar as this same reality pertains to the dialectic between time, place and space. For his part, Lira (1941) defines it as “world, planet, universe, cosmos or set of existing beings” (p. 215), while Valcárcel (1978) incorporates meanings such as “world, earth, universe, time, as well as clothing” (p. 172). These conceptions show that pacha integrates spatial, temporal and symbolic dimensions, establishing itself as a fundamental category for understanding the ontology of the runas and, consequently, for improving present-day coexistence.

For his part, Valcárcel (1978) notes that this word carries meanings such as earth, time, universe and stomach; the latter is still used in some localities of the Ancash region to refer to the abdomen as a whole organised around the navel. In turn, the temporal dimension is also projected in kuteq pacha, understood as the world in the process of transformation. Likewise, Gonçalez Holguín ([1608] 2007) offers, for his part, the idea of place, in which the genuine connection with the runas occurs essentially through landscapes that are constantly changing so as to express the order of the world. Along these lines, Llanto (2012) maintains that pacha is defined as a polysemic category that unites the notions of time, space, shelter, generative force, light and clothing, joined together by a principle of totality. From a philosophical and linguistic standpoint, this polysemy is not regarded as semantic dispersion but rather as the permanence of the core that connects world, time, territory and life. It is for this reason that the expression pachayachachiq can be interpreted as the knowledge that arises from pacha and from its transformations, integrating the dimensions of time, place, landscape and cosmos into a relational conception of reality. From the runas’ point of view, this conception underpinned a relationship of reciprocity with the natural world, which must be understood as a dynamic actuality, since nature, time and existence constitute an indissociable unity.

1.2. Pachayachachiq “The World-Universe That Reveals Itself”

Pachayachachiq is a compound Quechua term which, when broken down, comprises, firstly, (pacha: space, place, time) and, secondly, (yachachiq: a wise person who learns, orders and disseminates knowledge). It should also be noted that this term is written in different ways, such as yachachiq and yacháchikk, though both retain the same meaning and refer to the figure of the master and guardian of knowledge among the runas (Lira 1941, p. 337). This knowledge was grounded not solely in the transmission of content but was the outcome of a systematic ordering of pacha and its transformations that organised collective life.

The historical experience of the Andean peoples shows that the systematisation of the observation of natural cycles was part of their daily life, but the ultimate purpose was to appreciate changes in the environment and propose different strategies for adapting to the ecological zones, given that the Andean region is geographically rugged (Antúnez de Mayolo 1981, p. 15). In this sense, pacha became the central axis of spatial observation, from which we would derive a category that includes time, space, and, therefore, transformation, making possible the expression of the genuine thought of the runas. Pacha is the totality of the spaces and times of continuous change, in which all components exist through relations of constant change, as Roel (2001, p. 346) notes. Accordingly, pachayachachiq refers to the knowledge elaborated on the basis of the observation of pacha. The observer, therefore, does not merely account for knowledge of a doxastic kind, but rather for an epistemically systematised knowledge that explains the order of the world and sets in motion its transmission from one generation to another. Likewise, the notions concerning pachayachachiq are grounded in the Chronicles of Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua (1995, p. 19), who mentions a gold tablet located in the Coricancha temple, in the city of Cusco; this tablet bears an inscription of the function of pacha, on the basis of which the yachachiq explains what pacha shows and how it should be understood by the runas. This gold tablet displays the knowledge attained by the (runakunas: men of that era), as well as the development and preservation of knowledge concerning the orders and workings of the world; the site of the Coricancha implies that it cannot simply be assimilated to a place of worship, but may instead be thought of and regarded as an institution in which cosmological, religious and political knowledge, grounded in complex forms of Andean structural knowledge, was systematised and reproduced, and which was disseminated through organised and systemic teaching and learning practices. The author underlines that the Quechua expression huiracochan pacha yachiq kachan alludes to the figure of a wise person who reveals the world. Although the image shows a blend of Christian religiosity and the religious praxis of Inca society, in the latter one can note its communal value, a genuine knowledge concerning the understanding of pacha. Furthermore, those knowledgeable in these matters were specialists who made interpretations of the regularities of the cosmos and transmitted them to other specialised members of the community. Accordingly, pachayachachiq represents an intellectual tradition oriented towards understanding reality through the recording of its processes, rather than through abstract principles detached from experience.

1.3. Pacha: The Genuine Conception of the Runas

In the conception of the runas, pacha does not refer simply to a space, but to a relational place where the whole interlinking of nature and time coexist with one another. Thus, (kay pacha: the world here) is the world in which the experience of everyday life is manifested in the community through coexistence with nature, and where humankind shows its reciprocal respect towards nature. Furthermore, the landscape, the seasons of the year and the agricultural processes are regarded as the outcome of (pachakuti: the cyclical return that guarantees the continuity of the order of the cosmic world). In this sense, place is not a passive entity but rather an active one, characterised by transforming reality and organising the world of everyday life.

The earliest colonial interpretations described pacha in terms of a three-world structure (hanan pacha: the world above—the celestial; kay pacha: the world here or this world; and uku pacha: the world within—the interior). Thus, Garcilaso (1973, p. 86) refers to the three worlds under the designation of (hanan pacha: the high world; hurin pacha: this world; and uco pacha: the centre of the earth). Rivara (2000, pp. 117–8), meanwhile, discusses the three worlds as (hanan pacha: the upper ground; hurin pacha: the ground or plane below; and hinan pacha: the celestial ground); the author states that this topic has followed the lines of Garcilaso’s proposal, yet it does not coincide with Garcilaso’s proposal. Although it is true that the author sets out three worlds, as does Rivara, she in fact reflects only two worlds—(hanan pacha: ground above), (hurin pacha: ground below)—and when she mentions the third, hinan pacha, she once again emphasises the celestial ground, which would be related to the world above, thereby leaving out the scenario of (uku pacha: the centre of the earth), as mentioned by Garcilaso. In order to clarify these contradictions between the two authors under discussion, recourse is had to the proposal of Valcárcel (1964, p. 137), which proves more coherent with regard to the tripartite world (kay pacha: the everyday world; uku pacha: that which is below; and janan pacha: that which is above); on the basis of this proposal, the issue is clarified, and it can be maintained that the worlds referred to are three (hanan, kay and uku pacha). This manner of thinking on the part of the runas of pre-Hispanic society, as presented by these authors, would seem to correspond rather to colonial thought based on the religious imposition of the Spanish invaders; this is worth emphasising, since the original thought of the runas of this society was embodied in the dual thinking known as (yanantin: with its pair), and this pair was not necessarily of the same kind—that is, the pair of a person was not necessarily another person; its pair could be nature, such that the logic of complementarity is thereby fulfilled.

In sum, the worlds could not be tripartite, and so there is no possibility of three worlds but rather the possibility of the existence of four worlds. This conception confirms that the worlds are complementary. In this case, two worlds are concrete and two worlds are abstract; the idea of the triad is a Christian conception. It should also be noted that the division of the worlds is metaphorical; in reality, there exists only one world, which is termed pacha, as the totality of the spaces and times surrounding humankind. In the face of this proposition, the question arises: why did the runas of that era divide pacha into (tawa pachas: four worlds)? The answer is simple: the conception of the runas was constructed from the particular to the general; the explanations of the meaning of their existence are elucidated on the basis of the entities surrounding them, such as kay pacha and kuteq pacha—this does not imply that the runas remained at this stage, but rather that they also came to conceive of the abstract, such as hanan pacha and uku pacha. This idea calls for the consideration that, before discussing philosophy, it is first necessary to recall the passage from mythos to logos. This way of understanding the problem of philosophising makes it possible to appreciate the knowledge attained by the runas, which ought to be applied today, with a view to reconciling humankind with nature and the cosmos.

1.4. Hanan Pacha: The Celestial World or the World Above

Hanan pacha is the upper part of pacha and is understood as the space of the celestial forces that give order to, and sustain, both the unfolding of the cosmos and the cycles of existence. Hanan pacha does not designate a place separate from human experience, nor a transcendent plane in the sense most commonly given to it within the Western metaphysical tradition; rather, it expresses a plane that stands in continuous interrelation with the other planes within kay pacha. Likewise, hanan pacha forms part of a relational totality and holds meaning only by virtue of its relationship with the other planes of experience, in accordance with the principles of correspondence, complementarity and reciprocity that constitute the thought of Andean society (Paucca 2019). Along these lines, Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua (1993, p. 208), by means of a graphic representation, sets out that hanan pacha is the domain of the celestial and divine forces that regulate the order of the cosmos, showing that the Andean universe was conceived not as a fragmented reality, but as a system in motion in which the different planes of existence maintain a relationship of interdependence. In this sense, it does not constitute a distant or inaccessible space, but rather an active space that sustains the existence of earthly life. Moreover, it brings together the potentialities that regulate the fundamental cycles of nature through the presence of (inti: the sun; killa: the moon; kuyllur: the stars); meteorological phenomena and rainfall attest to the cosmic order that fosters the fertility of the earth, cultivation and the vitality of existence. Furthermore, these elements are not conceived as mere physical objects but as entities bearing ontological significance, whose interaction guarantees the balance of the cosmos (Paucca 2019).

For Andean cosmology, the balance of the world is a consequence of the continuous articulation of the different domains of pacha. It is impossible to conceive of human existence on its own, apart from the celestial order. Human existence arises from discontinuous relations between humans, nature and cosmic forces. In this way, hanan pacha is the domain that orients and sustains the order of the universe, and reaffirms a relational ontology, in the sense that the harmony of the cosmos arises from the permanent interaction of all the components of reality.

1.5. Kay Pacha: The World Here or This World

Kay pacha is the domain of existence and the sphere in which the relations that seek to articulate the order of the cosmos become visible; it is the place of here, or this world, within which spatial categories exist such as (wichay–urin: above–below; alliq–ichu: right–left; and ñawpa–qhipa: front–behind). Furthermore, each of these elements of pacha is constituted by a series of entities and functions of its own that embody the runas’ conception of the world. Thus, kay pacha is that everyday space of human beings, animals, plants and the remaining elements of nature that exist in permanent relations of interaction; this conception is only possible insofar as it is accepted that no being is superior to another, such that all follow the same ontological structure and are mutually dependent in order to preserve the balance of communal life. Thus, the principle of complementarity constitutes the foundation of the way of coexisting and continuing to live that emanates from the Andean worldview (Estermann 1998). In principle, kay pacha is conceived by the runas as (allpa: earth), the geographical surface and immediate landscape expression of existence itself. It is regarded as the space in which the relations established between the runas, nature and the cosmos are articulated. Thus, (mamapacha: Mother Earth) is synonymous with the source that provides total support for life; it is the foundation of a relationship of reciprocity that excludes the appropriation of nature as an object of exploitation, and also entails an understanding of nature as a living and interdependent reality.

In this regard, Basadre (1937, p. 93) notes that lands were differentiated according to the functions they fulfilled for agricultural, livestock and communal purposes, reflecting a systematised body of knowledge concerning ecological spaces and the modes of use of (allpa: earth). This territorial organisation responded to productive criteria and carried with it a conception of territory as part of the balance established between the community and pacha, whose organisation depended on accumulated experience and its transmission across generations. The persistence of this knowledge in Andean societies demonstrates the bond between the land and the people, grounded in experience, practice and the principle of reciprocity. It would therefore be imprudent to regard allpa as merely land or a natural resource, since the Andean conception makes clear that it was not only that, but rather forms part of the ontological dimension of knowledge, which at the same time characterises life, territory and living community. On this principle, kay pacha is conceived as a constitutive part of pacha, upon which the continuity of a life in balance among all beings depends. Finally, it should be underlined that kay pacha is the domain in which this ancient wisdom concerning interaction and reciprocity is made known and transmitted through everyday life practices, upholding in every case the principles that structure the worldview of this society and maintaining the balance of the various beings that give shape to reality (Paucca 2019).

1.6. Kuteq Pacha: The Cyclical World or the World of Constant Return

The main contribution of the research centres on the proposition of kuteq pacha, through which the tetrahedral conception of the runas of pre-Hispanic society is completed—a conception that persists to this day in the Andean regions. Kuteq pacha has enabled human beings to gain a clear notion of the management of time and has made it possible to carry out systematic observations of natural and astronomical cycles. In order to carry out these observations, the pachayachachiq adapted observatory centres such as (Inti watana: to tie the sun); in fact, this is a misuse of the Quechua term (Machicado 2016, p. 75). The correct designation is therefore (Inti qawana: solar observatory), since specialists in astronomy did not devote themselves to tying or binding the sun, but rather to observing the behaviour of the solar system and predicting possible phenomenal occurrences; this observatory is located in the citadel of Machu Picchu, in the Cusco region. On the basis of these observations, it becomes possible to analyse time in relation to (wata: year; killa: month; and punchaw: day); the runas’ priority was not to measure chronological time, but rather, most importantly, to conceive the rhythms according to which the sun moved during the day and the moon during the night. From these observations, they concluded that time follows a cyclical process in which the landscape fields are renewed, synthesised in the idea of (hatun kuteq pacha: the great return of the ages), whereby the continuity of existence depends on astronomical movement.

Astronomical knowledge enabled the runas to engage sustainably in agriculture, livestock rearing and other natural resources. It also made it possible to organise sowing, harvesting and the resting of the soil. Furthermore, the experience of the (yachaq runa: wise men; kipukamayoq: administrators of quipus) drew upon empirical observation, collective memory and communal organisation. Along these lines, the term pachakutiq or pachakuteq designates a philosophical category that goes beyond what might be represented by a mere return. It carries a content that corresponds to the restoration of cosmic order brought about through transformations or successions. For Roel (2001), pachakutiq signifies change or renewal of time and of the world. Each cycle, in some way, restores the harmony of reproducing the past within the future. Thus, Andean temporality does not appear to take the form of a linear sequence of events, but is instead understood as a cyclical process of transformation that renews the condition of existence.

This temporal ontology is reflected in agricultural activity, seed conservation and the storage of surpluses, together with the mechanisms of redistribution that take place among the (ayllus: families), responding to a notion of time grounded in the values of anticipation, reciprocation and the renewal of life. Hence, kuteq pacha designates the return of cycles, emphasising the principle of articulation with the changes, continuities and renewal of nature, societies and the cosmos. In light of the above, pachayachachiq is the knowledge that translates temporality conceived as the foundation of the order of the world. Temporality is not conceived as a measure of time, but is established as a form of knowledge for understanding the changes in pacha and, in orienting such change, aims at the continuity of collective life. Time in Andean thought is therefore conceived as a relational ontology, integrating past, present and future as part of a process of continuous regeneration.

1.7. Uku Pacha: The Subterranean World or the World Within

Uku pacha is the ontological dimension of fecundity, of regeneration, of the birth of life, within which are gestated the potentialities that allow for the emergence of new beings, underscoring the continuity of cosmic order. In this world takes place the timpuy—a term denoting “boiling or ebullition”—which helps new life to emerge through the interaction between the components of the seed, water and earth that set in motion the fecundity of the seed, enabling it subsequently to emerge as a new being, thereby guaranteeing the ceaseless regeneration of pachamama (Paucca 2019). Furthermore, the (pakarina: place of concealment), situated at the centre of pacha, gives rise to emergence through the (punku: exit door) that connects with the outer world—that is, communication between uku pacha and kay pacha. Pakariy is a Quechua term referring to the verb to hide or to be hidden, owing to the fact that plants and other beings tend to appear and disappear unexpectedly, for which reason they were often regarded as sacred places within the world of human experience (Valcárcel 1964, p. 137). Likewise, it is held that Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo emerged from Lake Titicaca, while other accounts place the origin of the Incas at Huanacauri hill, maintaining that the Ayar brothers emerged from Tampotoco hill; these indications suggest that the pakarinas are centres in which the essence of life takes refuge (Garcilaso 1973, p. 48). Manrique Enríquez (2002), for his part, underlines that the pakarina is the ontological threshold through which the creative forces of uku pacha come to shape kay pacha. The punku (door) would thus express that which unites the inner plane with the outer, bearing in mind the presence of hanan pacha, which makes it possible to secure the life cycle expressed through kuteq pacha. This reading coincides with the worldview of the Andean universe recorded by Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua (1993), who states that the Andean universe is constituted through the correspondence between its different parts or levels, with uku pacha being, first and foremost, the foundation of the constitutive threads of the processes of generation, fertility and the renewal of life.

2. Results

The contribution of the research was to clarify that pachayachachiq refers to a wise person or specialist within a particular philosophical and epistemological category who produces, validates and transmits knowledge, as shown in Figure 1. The philological examination of the unpacking of the term pachayachachiq incorporates a conception of a form of knowledge indissoluble from cosmological order. Pacha alludes to the spatio- temporal totality—vital, yet in permanent renewal—while yachachiq refers to the one who possesses the capacity to know, to understand and to communicate these changes. Together, the two terms thus outline a notion of knowledge that proceeds from the observation of the rhythms of the cosmos and from the experience of the community. The acquisition of knowledge emerges from a continuous interaction with pacha, understood as a dynamic “whole” in which nature, humanity and the cosmos exist within a relational process. In this context, knowledge is not the result of a separation between subject and object, but rather stems from participating in reality and in the events that arise from it, as well as from the interpretation of the regularities that emerge from them. It further reveals that the epistemic authority of the pachayachachiq rests upon the capacity to recognise patterns of transformation within the cosmos, since it is through the systematic observation of celestial movements, climatic cycles, the fertility of the earth and the dynamics of life that forms of knowledge are elaborated which make it possible to anticipate social organisation, agricultural practices, rituals and collective decisions.

A further finding worth highlighting is the fact that rationality is the outcome of a relational ontology. Unlike the conception that predominates today—characterised by individualism, whereby humanity is placed apart from nature and concerned solely with extracting its resources without regard for its distress—the understanding of hanan pacha, kay pacha, uku pacha, kuteq pacha, among others, shows that natural, social, cultural and religious processes form part of a system of complementarity and reciprocity, in which every transformation has repercussions for the balance of the whole system. From this logic, the pachayachachiq is the wise mediator who interprets these relations without fragmenting reality into isolated rational categories.

Finally, the research raises the challenge of understanding pachayachachiq as a theoretical-practical concept of great weight in the analysis of contemporary Andean philosophical thought. Its study goes beyond a mere analysis of different indigenous epistemologies, since it demonstrates that knowledge can find its grounding in a model of rationality distinct from that developed by the dominant Western tradition. The term itself escapes delimitation to a single social actor, for it expresses an epistemological model through which observation, experience, memory and reciprocity converge to create mechanisms for interpreting the dynamics of pacha, which translates into the continued construction of an intercultural philosophy founded upon the plurality of ways of knowing and of inhabiting the world.

The research carried out for Figure 2 reveals that pacha is understood as a tetradic cosmological structure comprising the integration of hanan pacha, kay pacha, uku pacha and kuteq pacha, whose relationship gives shape to a relational system grounded in complementarity and interdependence. This indicates that Andean reality is organised into levels that are functionally structured and capable of giving rise to conditions of production, conservation, transformation and the permanent renewal of existence. It may therefore be concluded that pacha should be understood as a dynamic totality whose stability depends on the continuous interaction between its levels. Furthermore, each space has its own ontological function. Hanan pacha symbolises the regulating space of the celestial cycles under the conditions necessary for the continuity of life; kay pacha represents the space in which the relations of reciprocity between the runas, nature and the sacred powers are made manifest; while uku pacha is the place from which new lives emerge, conferring generative potential upon existence, in addition to presenting itself as the space of fertility, pregnancy and the creation of life.

Likewise, the point of greatest interest in the research has centred on the inclusion of kuteq pacha as a fourth term within this cosmological organisation. This makes it possible to account for the ontological principle of return and renewal that governs the Andean unfolding of time. On the basis of the tetradic proposal, natural, social and cosmic processes would not follow the linear sequence that gave rise to them, but rather a cyclical and continuous sequence, generating a balance whereby the world is continually reconstructed without repeating the previous cycle. This process is articulated through a relation and a spatio-temporal dimension proper to kuteq pacha, which links the transformations and the continuity of the total dimension.

The results obtained in this research make it possible to affirm that Andean cosmology presents itself as a relational ontology, in which reality emerges from an indefinite relationship of interaction between the different domains of pacha. It is maintained that no level can be understood in isolation; each acquires its meaning by virtue of the relations it maintains with the others, with the aim of prolonging its existence within the cosmos. In sum, the research establishes that this tetradic structure is what characterises pachayachachiq, since its knowledge is that which expresses the regularities discerned from the relationship established between the levels of pacha. In this sense, the existence of Andean philosophical knowledge relates to a rationality of knowing which seeks to understand the processes of balance, transformation and regeneration of the cosmos, offering an alternative interpretation of reality grounded in the principles of reciprocity, complementarity and interdependence discernible within current indigenous epistemologies.

3. Discussion

The findings of this research constitute, to a certain extent, an opportunity for the philosophical standing of the terminology pacha, since the polysemy it exhibits would not constitute a problem of semantic indeterminacy but rather the form of an ontological category articulated in relation to a relational logic. On this premise, pacha cannot be regarded solely as a spatial referent, nor explained through the substantialist categories of Western-rooted metaphysics, since it simultaneously integrates temporality, spatiality and the generative force of existence. This reading coincides with the argument of Mazzi (2022), who termed pacha a “very extensive cosmological concept,” and expands the semantic-cognitive sense put forward by Llanto (2012) in noting that the polysemy of meanings of the term favours the unity of a conceptual core in which world, time, territory and life form a single ontological axis. The research therefore concludes by suggesting that polysemy is a system of conceptual integration rather than a dispersion or randomisation of meanings, offering a reading that supports the recognition that Andean philosophy may open up as a tradition of categories, rather than as a system that can be directly translated by imposing Western philosophical concepts upon it.

Furthermore, the research constitutes the formulation of a tetradic organisation of pacha, through the inclusion of kuteq pacha as a constitutive dimension of Andean cosmology. The historiographical tradition, represented by Garcilaso (1973), and subsequently taken up by Valcárcel (1964, 1978) and Rivara (2000), put forward a tripartite interpretation—comprising hanan pacha, kay pacha and uku pacha—and, without disregarding the legacy of that tradition, the hermeneutic analysis carried out here suggests that this representation may have been shaped, at least in part, by processes of conceptual translation and Christian mediation present within the colonial sources. In light of this consideration, the inclusion of kuteq pacha is not proposed, on this logic, as a mere arbitrary addition, but rather as an interpretive reconstruction in which the principle of yanantin gains strength, according to which every dimension of reality acquires meaning in relation to its counterpart. Within this logic, kay pacha has a regenerative and temporal correlate in kuteq pacha, while uku pacha corresponds to hanan pacha within a network of dynamic complementarities. This dialogical critique corresponds to Paucca (2019), whose conceptualisations of pachayachachiq constitute a reference point to be taken into account in this research, insofar as it is explored from a broader argument of content, as a cosmological architecture of tetradic root, revealing a more adequate explanation of the process of continuity and transformation within the Andean worldview.

A further important aspect of the study is the conceptual shift from the term cosmovision to pachayachachiq. The notion of cosmovision, widely employed in Andean studies (Estermann 1998; Depaz 2015), has served to describe indigenous images of the world; nevertheless, it implicitly retains a projectual rationale entailing a separation between a knowing subject and a known object. By contrast, pachayachachiq expresses a knowledge that arises from the reciprocal relationship between the runas and pacha, whereby knowing does not consist in representing an external reality but rather in interpreting the transformations that become evident from it. This new interpretation aligns with the critique made by Estermann (1998) of the epistemological categories of modernity, and also finds correspondence with the ideas defended by Quintanilla et al. (2023) regarding contemporary indigenous epistemologies. In this sense, the study proposes understanding pachayachachiq as an epistemologically autonomous category that allows contemporary debates on non-dualist rationalities and the legitimacy of alternative forms of knowledge production to be opened up.

The implications of these findings extend across the field of Andean philosophy and into contemporary debates on intercultural philosophy and relational ontologies. The articulation between pacha, pachayachachiq and kuteq pacha establishes the basis for questioning the universality of dualisms such as nature–culture, subject–object or linear-progressive time, inherited from the Aristotelian-Cartesian tradition. This study does not, however, seek to replace one philosophy with another, nor to adopt a relativist stance, but rather aims to demonstrate that Andean philosophical categories can participate in critical dialogue with other traditions of the intellectual world. Along these lines, the cyclical view of the world expressed through kuteq pacha is not a repetition of events, but the actualisation of the relations that joyfully sustain the cosmos. This view enables philosophical dialogue between the notions of chronos and kairos, or indeed with the Greek categories of physis and kosmos, broadening the comparative horizon of intercultural philosophy without diluting the specificity of the Andean experience.

Despite these contributions, the study presents limitations that must be borne in mind when assessing the scope of its conclusions. The documentary corpus is based principally on colonial sources, whose historical and philological relevance is unquestionable, but whose production was conditioned by processes of cultural mediation and evangelisation, requiring ongoing critical interpretation. Moreover, the qualitative and hermeneutic character of the research, which relies solely on historical and philosophical documentation, does not allow for empirical verification of the current relevance of kuteq pacha and pachayachachiq among present-day Quechua-speaking communities. Likewise, the study is confined to the Inca and Cusco spheres, and therefore does not analyse the potential conceptual variations present within other Andean traditions, particularly within the Aymara world.

These limitations open up several avenues for further research. Ethnographic studies are needed on the continuity of these categories within present-day Andean communities, as well as comparative studies enabling similarities and differences to be established between the tetradic proposal and other indigenous cosmologies of the Americas. Likewise, the articulation between kuteq pacha, astronomical observation and ceremonial spaces, such as the Inti qawana of Machu Picchu, constitutes a promising field for interdisciplinary research in philosophy, archaeoastronomy and ethnohistory. Finally, the dialogue between Andean relational ontology and current currents of process philosophy and relational philosophy opens up a pathway for broadening the presence of Andean philosophy within international debates on ontological plurality and indigenous epistemologies.

In sum, the most important contribution of the research lies not only in the reinterpretation of the central categories of Andean thought but also in the formulation of a conceptual framework that makes it possible to understand Inca cosmology from a relational logic reconstructed on the basis of its own philosophical principles. By proposing a tetradic organisation of pacha and by situating pachayachachiq as an epistemological and ontological category, the research broadens the possibilities for dialogue between Andean philosophy and contemporary debates on interculturality, relational ontologies and indigenous epistemologies, contributing to a more rigorous understanding of this philosophical tradition, with greater conceptual autonomy.

4. Materials and Methods

The documentary corpus was made up of primary and secondary sources selected with a view to addressing the problem of the philosophical thought of the runas through the elucidation of the Quechua terms, principally the categories pacha and pachayachachiq. The primary sources included colonial chronicles and lexical repertoires, such as those of Garcilaso de la Vega, Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua and González Holguín, in addition to the dictionaries of Lira and González Holguín. With regard to secondary sources, research in Andean philosophy, ethnohistory, anthropology and philology was drawn upon, developed by Valcárcel, Estermann, Rivara de Tuesta, Roel, Llanto, Depaz, Machicado, Paucca, Mazzi, Quintanilla et al., as well as the historical studies of Basadre and Antúnez de Mayolo. Studies based principally on colonial (public) administration and ethnographic studies were excluded; the purpose of the study was to reconstruct and interpret the philosophical categories on the basis of documentary analysis. The construction of the documentary corpus followed a strategy of triangulation of the categories and subcategories in relation to the specialised literature, which made it possible to contrast the historical records with their contemporary reinterpretations within the field of intercultural philosophy and Andean epistemologies.

Methodologically, moreover, a qualitative approach was adopted, since the study was oriented towards seeking and establishing the sense of the philosophical, ontological and epistemological meanings of the categories pacha and pachayachachiq within Andean thought; in this way, the interpretation of the aforementioned categories was achieved, taking into account their historical, linguistic and cultural context in line with the interpretive perspective set out by Denzin and Lincoln (2018). Likewise, emphasis was placed on a grounded theory design, with the aim of progressively generating the construction of conceptual categories through the analysis of documents, which made it possible to verify the pre-established categories (Parámo et al. 2020). The analytical process followed the stages of open, axial and selective coding of the Quechua terms through the application of ATLAS.ti 8 software, thereby making it possible to identify semantic regularities and establish relationships between the different categories, for the construction of the interpretive model of the tetradic conception of pacha and the philosophical meaning of pachayachachiq. Figure 1 and Figure 2 present the results of the coding process, which bring together the emerging categories and conceptual relationships, rather than constituting a reproduction of the documentary sources.

The interpretation of the categories was carried out by means of the hermeneutic method (Gadamer 2002), understood as a process of comprehending and interpreting texts in accordance with their own historical and cultural horizon. This method served to articulate the philological analysis of the Quechua language, the interpretation of the terms on the basis of the colonial chronicles, and the dialogue established with intercultural philosophy, ethnohistory and Andean anthropology, thereby fostering a contextualised reconstruction of the meaning of pacha and pachayachachiq. Situating grounded theory in combination with hermeneutics made it possible to articulate the inductive process of categorial construction with the philosophical interpretation of the ontological relations that structure Andean cosmology. In accordance with the editorial policy of Genealogy (MDPI), generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) was used solely to support the initial bibliographic search and the linguistic review of the manuscript; the selection of sources, the coding process, the hermeneutic interpretation and the construction of the conclusions were carried out solely by the authors, such that the research was based exclusively on publicly accessible documentary sources, with no involvement of human participants and, accordingly, no need for procedures relating to informed consent or confidentiality.

5. Conclusions

This study has sought to reinterpret Andean cosmology from a philosophical and philological approach, drawing on the Quechua terminology pacha and pachayachachiq, conceived as conceptual categories that enable the explanation of a relational ontology proper to the runas. The study also makes clear that the meaning of these categories can only be understood by taking into account the relations they establish between language, experience and cosmological organisation. In this sense, the hermeneutic reading developed here reveals that Andean rationality is not shaped through dichotomous oppositions, but rather through principles of complementarity, reciprocity and ceaseless transformation.

The main theoretical contribution has been the proposition of a tetradic organisation of pacha, adding kuteq pacha as a dimension that accounts for the restitution and cyclical regeneration of natural, social and cosmic processes. This proposal represents an advance on traditional interpretations of Andean cosmology, as it adds a temporal dimension that understands it in terms of becoming—as a permanent process of rebalancing rather than as a linear succession of events. In this sense, the proposal may be considered as a new interpretive framework that contributes to the current discussion on relational ontologies and indigenous epistemologies.

Finally, the conclusions support the need to encourage the study of the confrontation between philosophical traditions outside the Western tradition, insofar as they show that Andean categories can resonate with current debates on ontological pluralities, the situatedness of knowledge, and the relations between humanity, nature and the cosmos, without divesting themselves of the conceptual worlds in which they emerge and acquire meaning. It is likewise made clear that there is a need for an exhaustive study of other fundamental concepts of runa simi, which would further strengthen the study of Andean philosophy on the basis of its own conceptual categories and contribute positively to the development of intercultural philosophy and to contemporary studies on indigenous epistemologies.