Enhancing Safety and Crisis Management Through Adaptive Leadership in Complex Construction Engineering Projects

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of adaptive leadership on crisis management effectiveness in complex construction engineering projects in Saudi Arabia. Adaptive leadership was conceptualized through six core dimensions: Flexibility in Decision-Making, Emotional Intelligence, Leader-Follower Communication, Problem-Solving Adaptability, Resilience in Leadership, and Fostering Collaboration. The study aimed to evaluate the impact of these leadership dimensions on crisis response effectiveness and safety outcomes within the high-risk, dynamic environment of the Saudi construction sector. A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted among managerial and supervisory personnel across major engineering and construction firms in Saudi Arabia. A total of 183 valid responses were obtained using a non-probability convenience sampling technique. The data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Results indicated that five adaptive leadership dimensions—Flexibility in Decision-Making, Emotional Intelligence, Problem-Solving Adaptability, Resilience in Leadership, and Fostering Collaboration—had significant positive effects on crisis management effectiveness. However, Leader-Follower Communication did not demonstrate a statistically significant relationship with crisis outcomes. The findings contribute theoretical value by validating an adaptive leadership framework tailored to engineering project crises. Practically, the study underscores the importance of enhancing leadership flexibility, emotional intelligence, and collaborative engagement to strengthen crisis responsiveness and project continuity in Saudi construction firms. Recommendations include the development of targeted leadership training programs and the integration of digital technologies to support adaptive decision-making in real-time crisis conditions, resulting in better Safety and Crisis Management. Although, study limitations include reliance on self-reported data and the context-specific focus on the Saudi construction sector, which may affect generalizability, the findings are contextualized through comparison with international literature to support broader relevance.

1. Introduction

Large-scale construction engineering projects are inherently susceptible to crises due to the intricate interplay between technical complexity, organizational interdependencies, and volatile external conditions [1,2,3,4]. These projects are characterized by multifaceted systems, multidisciplinary collaboration, and extended timelines—factors that render them vulnerable to unexpected disruptions. In many cases, project environments are shaped by fluctuating resource availability, bureaucratic and regulatory challenges, rapidly evolving socio-political dynamics, and a host of environmental and logistical uncertainties [5,6,7,8]. Collectively, these elements create a landscape where crisis is not an isolated risk but a recurring reality. Therefore, the ability to manage such complexity with resilience and foresight becomes paramount.

Within this context, leadership plays a pivotal role in determining project success or failure. Conventional leadership models, grounded in hierarchical authority and fixed procedural adherence, often prove inadequate in addressing the multifarious nature of crises in complex engineering settings [9]. These models may offer clarity and control under stable conditions but struggle to accommodate the fluidity and rapid change that characterize crisis scenarios. In high-stakes environments, rigid leadership structures can inhibit innovation, delay responsiveness, and exacerbate the consequences of disruptions [10]. Conversely, adaptive leadership has emerged as a compelling alternative capable of navigating the intricacies of dynamic project environments. Unlike traditional paradigms, adaptive leadership prioritizes flexibility, emotional intelligence, and stakeholder inclusion [11]. It is rooted in the premise that leaders must continuously learn, evolve, and recalibrate their strategies in response to shifting conditions. Core principles of adaptive leadership include situational awareness, open communication, decentralized decision-making, and the cultivation of resilience across teams and organizations [12]. By fostering a culture of collaboration and innovation, adaptive leaders are better positioned to identify emerging risks, mobilize resources efficiently, and implement responsive mitigation strategies.

The need for adaptive leadership is particularly pronounced in Saudi Arabia’s construction sector, which is undergoing a dramatic transformation aligned with the national Vision 2030 agenda. This long-term strategic framework aims to diversify the Kingdom’s economy and reduce its dependency on oil by fostering investment in infrastructure, tourism, renewable energy, and smart cities [13]. As part of this vision, Saudi Arabia has launched an array of mega-engineering projects, including NEOM, the Red Sea Project, Qiddiya Entertainment City, and the King Salman Energy Park. These projects are global in scale, integrating advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, green infrastructure, and sustainable urban planning. However, the implementation of these projects has not been without challenges. The construction sector continues to experience issues related to supply chain disruptions, labor shortages, environmental constraints, and unpredictable regulatory landscapes [14]. Furthermore, the size and visibility of these initiatives attract heightened scrutiny from both domestic and international stakeholders, placing additional pressure on project managers to deliver timely and sustainable outcomes [15]. These factors underline the need for agile leadership approaches that can respond proactively to both anticipated and unforeseen disruptions. Therefore, adaptive leadership within the Saudi Arabia’s construction sector is the subject of this research.

Emerging research supports the relevance of adaptive leadership in addressing these challenges. Studies on the application of lean construction methodologies in Saudi megaprojects have demonstrated that while process optimization can improve efficiency, success largely hinges on leadership’s ability to align these frameworks with cultural and contextual realities [16]. Similarly, investigations into active leadership and risk management among contractors have underscored the importance of leadership engagement in fostering organizational preparedness and responsiveness [17]. These findings suggest that leadership adaptability is not a supplementary skill but a fundamental requirement in the effective execution of complex projects. Despite these developments, the specific application of adaptive leadership in Saudi Arabia’s construction engineering context remains under-researched. This gap is particularly concerning given the socio-cultural characteristics that influence leadership dynamics in the Kingdom. Organizational cultures in Saudi Arabia often emphasize hierarchy, centralized authority, and deference to seniority—traits that may conflict with the decentralization and collaborative ethos central to adaptive leadership [18]. Therefore, it is essential to examine how adaptive leadership principles can be effectively contextualized, integrated, and operationalized within this unique environment.

This study aims to address this critical gap by investigating the role of adaptive leadership in enhancing crisis management within complex construction engineering projects in Saudi Arabia. The research seeks to evaluate how leadership adaptability influences project resilience, risk mitigation strategies, and stakeholder collaboration in high-pressure scenarios. By doing so, it intends to offer both theoretical contributions to the field of leadership and practical insights for project managers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders. Ultimately, the findings of this study will support the ongoing transformation of the Saudi construction sector by identifying leadership practices that are better suited to the demands of contemporary mega-projects.

2. Existing Literature and Research Gap

To provide a clear and structured overview of the existing literature, Table 1a,b summarize key studies relevant to the relationship between adaptive leadership and crisis management. Each study is presented in terms of its purpose, methodological approach, key findings, research context, and identified gaps. This synthesis highlights both the breadth of scholarly attention to adaptive leadership traits and the continued need for sector-specific investigations, particularly within the construction engineering domain. The table serves as a foundation for identifying theoretical and empirical gaps that the current study seeks to address.

Despite the growing body of literature on adaptive leadership and crisis management, significant gaps remain in applying these frameworks to the construction engineering sector. Studies such as Irtaimeh et al. [19], Settembre-Blundo et al. [20], and Lenz and Eckhard [21] offer valuable insights into strategic flexibility and resilience but are grounded primarily in corporate, administrative, or public-sector contexts. These findings are not directly transferable to the highly technical, deadline-driven, and interdependent nature of construction projects. Moreover, existing research often focuses on individual adaptive leadership traits in isolation—such as emotional intelligence (Yuste [22]; David [23]), without exploring their combined effect on crisis management in complex construction settings.

However, several limitations persist. Most studies prioritize general organizational or theoretical models, with limited empirical focus on adaptive leadership within construction engineering projects, especially under crisis conditions. While Kou et al. [24] touches on resilience in infrastructure projects, leadership roles remain underexplored. Regional studies (e.g., Odeh et al. [25]; Khadija Al Balushi [26]) are confined to specific service sectors, lacking relevance to engineering complexity and crisis coordination. Moreover, frameworks addressing digital transformation, crisis learning, and knowledge transfer, essential to modern construction environments, are scarcely integrated into adaptive leadership research, as noted in works by Reiman et al. [27] and Uhl-Bien and Arena [28].

Recent post-COVID literature underscores the critical need for adaptive leadership in navigating volatile and uncertain environments, emphasizing the interplay between crisis management, resilience, and employee performance. For instance, transformational leadership has been shown to enhance organizational resilience through adaptive cultural practices, particularly in pressured service sectors [25]. Similarly, crisis management indicators were found to significantly influence employee performance during the COVID-19 crisis in Oman, highlighting key leadership competencies in emergency contexts [26]. The role of adaptive managers as emergent leaders during crises has also gained attention, with evidence showing their flexibility and responsiveness to shifting conditions [29]. Further, cross-national reflections on crisis leadership in the education sector reveal enduring lessons for building organizational resilience in times of disruption [30]. Together, these studies reinforce the growing relevance of incorporating adaptive leadership frameworks shaped by post-crisis realities, urging a rethinking of leadership paradigms in increasingly unpredictable environments.

In summary, the literature reveals a critical gap in empirically linking adaptive leadership traits, such as emotional intelligence, decision-making flexibility, and resilience, to crisis management effectiveness in complex construction engineering projects, particularly in relation to the unique complexities of managing large-scale, multidisciplinary projects during crises. Furthermore, limited attention has been given to Middle Eastern settings, and how leaders institutionalize crisis learning, highlighting the need for sector-specific, context-aware, and integrative research in this field. The current study seeks to address this gap by examining the relationship between adaptive leadership dimensions and crisis management efficacy within complex construction engineering projects.

Table 1. Summary of Studies part (a,b).

(a)
Study	Purpose	Design/Methodology	Key Findings	Context	Gap in the Study
Irtaimeh et al. [19]	To examine how strategic flexibility and cognitive ability influence crisis management effectiveness.	Quantitative study using structural equation modeling on organizational leaders across sectors.	Strategic flexibility and cognitive agility enhance leaders’ ability to adapt crisis responses.	General organizational leadership under crisis conditions.	Lacks focus on construction-specific crisis environments and leadership behavior.
Settembre-Blundo et al. [20]	To propose a sustainability-based risk management model incorporating flexibility and resilience.	Case-based framework development from corporate risk management.	Flexible and resilient decision-making improves sustainability and crisis responsiveness.	Corporate and supply chain crisis risk management.	Does not address project-specific leadership in construction crises.
Lenz & Eckhard [21]	To analyze administrative flexibility in government crisis management.	Comparative case study across German public-sector districts.	Decentralized, context-sensitive decision-making enhances crisis responsiveness.	Public-sector crisis administration.	Limited transferability to private sector and construction engineering.
Aguilar Yuste [22]	To explore how emotional intelligence influences leadership during crises.	Qualitative study on leadership traits and team morale in high-pressure events.	EI improves emotional regulation, conflict resolution, and leadership stability.	General leadership in crisis environments.	Does not explore project-based EI in engineering or construction contexts.
David [23]	To investigate emotional intelligence in crisis leadership from a socio-economic lens.	Theoretical analysis of EI and leadership ethics in crisis contexts.	EI supports trust, transparency, and ethical decision-making during crises.	Post-capitalist organizations under crisis.	Theoretical focus; lacks applied construction industry cases.
Kou et al. [24]	To evaluate resilience in emergency management of infrastructure construction projects during extreme disasters.	Development of a resilience evaluation framework using data from disaster-affected infrastructure projects.	Adaptive resilience and response resilience are key to effective emergency management in construction crises.	Global, infrastructure construction projects affected by extreme disasters.	Limited focus on leadership roles in emergency resilience strategies.
Odeh et al. [25]	To examine the impact of transformational leadership on organizational resilience, mediated by adaptive culture in Dubai’s service sector.	Cross-sectional design using online surveys with 379 responses.	Transformational leadership significantly impacts adaptive culture and resilience, with adaptive culture as a partial mediator.	Dubai, UAE, service sector during COVID-19.	Does not specifically examine construction project environments.
(b)
Study	Purpose	Design/Methodology	Key Findings	Context	Gap in the Study
Khadija Al Balushi [26]	To investigate the impact of crisis management strategies on employee performance during the COVID-19 pandemic in Oman.	Quantitative study using structured questionnaires with 103 responses.	Crisis management strategies positively impact employee performance; proactive measures enhance resilience and productivity.	Oman, Ministry of Education, quality department during COVID-19.	Does not assess long-term crisis recovery and learning beyond immediate crisis response.
Reiman et al. [27]	To explore adaptive safety management principles in safety-critical organizations using complexity science.	Theoretical and conceptual exploration based on complexity science principles.	Adaptive management balances stability and flexibility, promoting resilience in safety-critical environments.	Global, safety-critical organizations.	Lacks empirical case studies on crisis response in engineering contexts.
Uhl-Bien and Arena [28]	To address leadership for organizational adaptability in dynamic environments through a theoretical framework.	Theoretical synthesis integrating leadership and adaptability concepts.	Leadership adaptability requires balancing exploration and exploitation to foster innovation and resilience.	Global, dynamic organizational environments.	Does not provide direct application to the construction and engineering crisis environments.
Hubbard et al. [31]	To explore the historical foundations and ethical principles of adaptive leadership.	Theoretical exploration integrating historical leadership principles and ethical considerations.	Adaptive leadership requires balancing ethical decision-making with organizational adaptability.	Global, leadership in high-risk environments.	Lacks empirical validation of ethical leadership applications in crisis settings.
Wang et al. [32]	To assess the effects of transformational leadership and employee self-efficacy on organizational resilience in megaprojects.	Partial least-squares structural equation modeling using data from 243 responses.	Transformational leadership and self-efficacy enhance resilience; organizational learning mediates the relationship but not organizational climate.	China, megaprojects addressing uncertainties.	Neglects specific challenges of crisis leadership in engineering projects.
Bajaba et al. [29]	To study the role of adaptive personality in effective leadership during the COVID-19 crisis in Saudi Arabia.	Quantitative study with data from 116 managers using SCT and COR theories.	Adaptive personality enhances leadership effectiveness, self-efficacy, and motivation to lead during crises.	Saudi Arabia, leadership during COVID-19.	Focuses on personality traits rather than structured leadership interventions.
Aljuhmani and Emeagwali [33]	To explore the role of strategic planning in organizational crisis management in Jordan’s banking sector.	Descriptive-analytical design using questionnaire survey with 75 responses.	Strategic planning influences crisis signal detection but not preparation, recovery, or learning phases.	Jordan, banking sector in Ramtha.	Fails to integrate adaptive leadership as a moderating factor in strategic planning for crisis management.

Table 1. Summary of Studies part (a,b).

(a)
Study	Purpose	Design/Methodology	Key Findings	Context	Gap in the Study
Irtaimeh et al. [19]	To examine how strategic flexibility and cognitive ability influence crisis management effectiveness.	Quantitative study using structural equation modeling on organizational leaders across sectors.	Strategic flexibility and cognitive agility enhance leaders’ ability to adapt crisis responses.	General organizational leadership under crisis conditions.	Lacks focus on construction-specific crisis environments and leadership behavior.
Settembre-Blundo et al. [20]	To propose a sustainability-based risk management model incorporating flexibility and resilience.	Case-based framework development from corporate risk management.	Flexible and resilient decision-making improves sustainability and crisis responsiveness.	Corporate and supply chain crisis risk management.	Does not address project-specific leadership in construction crises.
Lenz & Eckhard [21]	To analyze administrative flexibility in government crisis management.	Comparative case study across German public-sector districts.	Decentralized, context-sensitive decision-making enhances crisis responsiveness.	Public-sector crisis administration.	Limited transferability to private sector and construction engineering.
Aguilar Yuste [22]	To explore how emotional intelligence influences leadership during crises.	Qualitative study on leadership traits and team morale in high-pressure events.	EI improves emotional regulation, conflict resolution, and leadership stability.	General leadership in crisis environments.	Does not explore project-based EI in engineering or construction contexts.
David [23]	To investigate emotional intelligence in crisis leadership from a socio-economic lens.	Theoretical analysis of EI and leadership ethics in crisis contexts.	EI supports trust, transparency, and ethical decision-making during crises.	Post-capitalist organizations under crisis.	Theoretical focus; lacks applied construction industry cases.
Kou et al. [24]	To evaluate resilience in emergency management of infrastructure construction projects during extreme disasters.	Development of a resilience evaluation framework using data from disaster-affected infrastructure projects.	Adaptive resilience and response resilience are key to effective emergency management in construction crises.	Global, infrastructure construction projects affected by extreme disasters.	Limited focus on leadership roles in emergency resilience strategies.
Odeh et al. [25]	To examine the impact of transformational leadership on organizational resilience, mediated by adaptive culture in Dubai’s service sector.	Cross-sectional design using online surveys with 379 responses.	Transformational leadership significantly impacts adaptive culture and resilience, with adaptive culture as a partial mediator.	Dubai, UAE, service sector during COVID-19.	Does not specifically examine construction project environments.
(b)
Study	Purpose	Design/Methodology	Key Findings	Context	Gap in the Study
Khadija Al Balushi [26]	To investigate the impact of crisis management strategies on employee performance during the COVID-19 pandemic in Oman.	Quantitative study using structured questionnaires with 103 responses.	Crisis management strategies positively impact employee performance; proactive measures enhance resilience and productivity.	Oman, Ministry of Education, quality department during COVID-19.	Does not assess long-term crisis recovery and learning beyond immediate crisis response.
Reiman et al. [27]	To explore adaptive safety management principles in safety-critical organizations using complexity science.	Theoretical and conceptual exploration based on complexity science principles.	Adaptive management balances stability and flexibility, promoting resilience in safety-critical environments.	Global, safety-critical organizations.	Lacks empirical case studies on crisis response in engineering contexts.
Uhl-Bien and Arena [28]	To address leadership for organizational adaptability in dynamic environments through a theoretical framework.	Theoretical synthesis integrating leadership and adaptability concepts.	Leadership adaptability requires balancing exploration and exploitation to foster innovation and resilience.	Global, dynamic organizational environments.	Does not provide direct application to the construction and engineering crisis environments.
Hubbard et al. [31]	To explore the historical foundations and ethical principles of adaptive leadership.	Theoretical exploration integrating historical leadership principles and ethical considerations.	Adaptive leadership requires balancing ethical decision-making with organizational adaptability.	Global, leadership in high-risk environments.	Lacks empirical validation of ethical leadership applications in crisis settings.
Wang et al. [32]	To assess the effects of transformational leadership and employee self-efficacy on organizational resilience in megaprojects.	Partial least-squares structural equation modeling using data from 243 responses.	Transformational leadership and self-efficacy enhance resilience; organizational learning mediates the relationship but not organizational climate.	China, megaprojects addressing uncertainties.	Neglects specific challenges of crisis leadership in engineering projects.
Bajaba et al. [29]	To study the role of adaptive personality in effective leadership during the COVID-19 crisis in Saudi Arabia.	Quantitative study with data from 116 managers using SCT and COR theories.	Adaptive personality enhances leadership effectiveness, self-efficacy, and motivation to lead during crises.	Saudi Arabia, leadership during COVID-19.	Focuses on personality traits rather than structured leadership interventions.
Aljuhmani and Emeagwali [33]	To explore the role of strategic planning in organizational crisis management in Jordan’s banking sector.	Descriptive-analytical design using questionnaire survey with 75 responses.	Strategic planning influences crisis signal detection but not preparation, recovery, or learning phases.	Jordan, banking sector in Ramtha.	Fails to integrate adaptive leadership as a moderating factor in strategic planning for crisis management.

3. Key Dimensions in Adaptive Leadership

This section explores various dimensions of adaptive leadership, including flexibility in decision-making, emotional intelligence, leader-follower communication, problem-solving adaptability, resilience, and fostering collaboration. It also discuss the impact of these dimensions on effective crisis management across diverse organizational and industrial contexts.

3.1. Flexibility in Decision-Making

Flexibility in decision-making has emerged as a foundational element of adaptive leadership, particularly in high-risk and dynamic environments. Irtaimeh et al. [19] found that strategic flexibility significantly enhances organizational agility and decision-making quality during crises, particularly when mediated by leaders’ cognitive adaptability. Similarly, Settembre-Blundo et al. [20] highlighted the role of flexible leadership in proactively managing systemic risks through sustainability-oriented risk management frameworks. These findings are complemented by Lenz and Eckhard [21], who demonstrated that administrative flexibility and decentralized decision-making structures enhance crisis responsiveness at the local government level. Collectively, these studies underscore the importance of flexible, context-sensitive decision-making in crisis-prone sectors such as construction engineering.

3.2. Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Emotional intelligence is another key trait of adaptive leadership that contributes significantly to crisis management effectiveness. Yuste [22] emphasized that emotionally intelligent leaders are better equipped to regulate emotions, understand team dynamics, and maintain composure under psychological stress—factors that are critical in high-stakes construction scenarios. David [23] further argued that EI-driven leadership facilitates psychological safety and empathy, enabling leaders to act as emotional anchors during organizational turbulence. These insights affirm the value of emotional intelligence in sustaining morale, enhancing communication, and building trust among construction teams during crises.

3.3. Leader-Follower Communication

Effective communication between leaders and team members is indispensable in navigating crisis events. Li et al. [34] demonstrated that leader brokerage—defined as the ability to bridge information silos—plays a crucial role in improving organizational responsiveness during crisis recovery. Sarris [35] expanded on this by illustrating how rhetorical clarity, empathy, and vision empower leaders to motivate and align teams. In the construction sector, where miscommunication can lead to severe operational and safety issues, such communicative competencies are essential for managing disruptions and fostering coordinated responses.

3.4. Problem-Solving Adaptability

Adaptive leadership is also characterized by an agile and creative approach to problem-solving. Nguyen et al. [36] highlighted that training in innovative behavior enhances crisis management self-efficacy, equipping leaders with the tools to address unpredictable challenges effectively. Similarly, Orkibi [37] introduced the concept of “creative adaptability,” which combines emotional and cognitive flexibility to foster innovative crisis responses. Carmeli et al. [38] provided further evidence that problem-solving adaptability is amplified in psychologically safe environments, where leaders encourage experimentation and learning. These findings are particularly relevant to construction project managers, who must often respond to crises with real-time improvisation and limited resources.

3.5. Resilience in Leadership

Resilience is a core component of adaptive leadership that facilitates organizational recovery and long-term learning. Strehmel et al. [30] demonstrated that resilient leaders exhibit proactiveness, strategic foresight, and communicative clarity, all of which are vital for transitioning from disruption to recovery. Senbeto and Hon [39] reinforced this by linking leadership behaviors such as vision articulation and calm modeling to employee resilience in high-risk sectors. In the context of construction engineering, resilience enables project leaders to maintain continuity, foster employee engagement, and prepare for future crises.

3.6. Fostering Collaboration

Lastly, fostering collaboration is crucial in managing crises in complex construction environments that involve multiple stakeholders. Olsen et al. [40] proposed a model of collaborative crisis management, emphasizing the importance of trust-building, coordination, and joint decision-making. Margherita et al. [41] advanced this perspective by demonstrating how digital integration and stakeholder collaboration improve response agility and recovery outcomes. These studies validate the role of collaborative leadership in reducing operational silos and ensuring inclusive, coherent action during crises in the construction sector.

4. Theoretical Framework

This study is grounded in Adaptive Leadership Theory, which emphasizes the leader’s capacity to respond flexibly and strategically to rapidly changing environments and unforeseen challenges. Adaptive leadership involves recognizing critical challenges, mobilizing collective intelligence, and deploying behavioral flexibility to manage uncertainty and risk elements, especially pertinent in construction engineering projects that frequently encounter crises involving tight schedules, technical failures, and high interdependency among stakeholders.

Based on the presented literature, the current research disaggregates adaptive leadership into six core dimensions: flexibility in decision-making, emotional intelligence, leader-follower communication, problem-solving adaptability, resilience in leadership, and fostering collaboration. Each of these dimensions represents a dynamic capability that can shape how effectively crises are managed in complex construction environments.

In this context, crisis management effectiveness is the dependent variable, conceptualized as the successful application of leadership responses that stabilize the project, ensure stakeholder alignment, and facilitate rapid recovery from disruptions. The theoretical model (Figure 1) posits that each adaptive leadership trait exerts a direct influence on crisis management outcomes, thereby allowing for a detailed examination of how specific leadership behaviors contribute to project resilience and operational continuity.

The study’s hypotheses (H1–H6) are derived from this framework, aiming to empirically assess the relationship between each adaptive leadership dimension and crisis management effectiveness. This approach bridges existing leadership theory with the unique demands of crisis navigation in the construction engineering sector, particularly within the context of large-scale, multidisciplinary projects in Saudi Arabia.

Hypothesis 1 (H1):

Flexibility in decision-making positively influences crisis management effectiveness in construction engineering projects.

Hypothesis 2 (H2):

Emotional intelligence positively influences crisis response effectiveness in construction engineering projects.

Hypothesis 3 (H3):

Leader-follower communication plays a significant role in crisis leadership effectiveness in construction engineering projects.

Hypothesis 4 (H4):

Problem-solving adaptability positively influences crisis management outcomes in construction engineering projects.

Hypothesis 5 (H5):

Resilience in leadership has a positive impact on crisis resolution in construction engineering projects.

Hypothesis 6 (H6):

Fostering collaboration positively influences crisis management effectiveness in construction engineering projects.

5. Research Methodology

This section outlines the methodology employed to investigate the relationship between adaptive leadership dimensions and crisis management effectiveness in construction engineering projects. It details the research design and the development of the data collection instrument, followed by an explanation of the target population and the sampling strategy used to select participants. The section also discusses the procedures undertaken to ensure the validity and reliability of the research instrument. Additionally, it describes the statistical techniques applied to analyze the data, including descriptive analysis, tests for normality and multicollinearity, and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Finally, the section concludes with a discussion of the ethical considerations observed throughout the research process.

5.1. Research Design and Instrument

To achieve the objectives of this study, a quantitative research methodology was adopted, utilizing a structured questionnaire to collect data from professionals in Saudi Arabia’s engineering and construction sectors. The research instrument was adapted from previous validated studies in leadership and crisis management, specifically referencing Northouse [42] for Adaptive Leadership and Aljuhmani & Emeagwali [33], Al Balushi [26] for Crisis Management. The questionnaire is designed to collect data using a 5-point Likert scale, allowing participants to express their level of agreement with each statement. This scale ensures a structured quantitative assessment of Adaptive Leadership’s impact on Crisis Management in complex Construction Engineering Projects. Given the construction industry’s operational nature, a self-administered questionnaire was distributed in both electronic and hard copy formats, ensuring accessibility for participants working in both office-based and field environments. The collected responses were systematically analyzed to identify trends, correlations, and areas for improvement in the construction sector’s crisis management practices.

The questionnaire was divided into three sections. Section A includes questions concerning demographic and work-related factors, such as age, gender, job title, work experience, and involvement in crisis management activities. Section B consists of questions measuring the independent variable, Adaptive Leadership, conceptualized in this study through six key dimensions: Flexibility in Decision-Making, Emotional Intelligence, Leader-Follower Communication, Problem-Solving Adaptability, Resilience in Leadership, and Fostering Collaboration. Section C consists of statements related to the dependent variable, Crisis Management, which includes five core dimensions: Crisis Signal Detection, Crisis Preparation, Crisis Containment, Crisis Recovery, and Crisis Learning.

5.2. Population and Sampling Strategy

The target population comprises professionals working within the engineering and construction sectors in Saudi Arabia. These include both managerial and supervisory staff actively involved in construction project execution, operations coordination, site supervision, and leadership roles. Given the study’s focus on the influence of adaptive leadership on crisis management effectiveness, individuals in these roles are deemed the most appropriate to provide informed responses based on their direct involvement in crisis handling and leadership practices. The sample primarily represents companies based in the northern region of Saudi Arabia. This includes firms that are known for their prominence, leadership practices, and engagement in crisis management activities, such as Northern Area Construction Corporation (NRCC), Tabuk Engineering Services (TES) and Al-Jouf Infrastructure Development Company (AIDC). Incorporating diverse geographical regions allows the study to capture variations in leadership styles, crisis management strategies, and organizational dynamics, which are often influenced by regional, cultural, and contextual factors [43].

Given the dispersed and specialized nature of the target population, non-probability convenience sampling was adopted for this study. This method is chosen due to its practicality in accessing managerial and supervisory professionals who are actively engaged in project leadership and crisis management. Convenience sampling is commonly applied in industry-focused studies where the target population is difficult to access through random sampling due to operational constraints and workforce availability [44,45]. While probability sampling techniques could enhance the generalizability of the findings, the selected method ensures that data is obtained from individuals with direct and relevant experience, which enhances the credibility and applicability of the findings in the construction engineering sector [46,47,48].

G*Power 3.1 software was utilized to determine the minimum sample size required for multiple linear regression analysis with 6 predictors, reflecting the six independent variables of the study. The calculated minimum sample size was 98 participants. However, to further enhance the statistical robustness, address potential non-responses, and strengthen the generalizability of the study across diverse organizational and geographical settings, the sample size has been strategically increased to 200 participants. This adjustment is in line with recommendations in leadership and organizational studies, which advocate for larger sample sizes when studying complex constructs such as adaptive leadership and crisis management in multifaceted industry environments [49,50,51].

5.3. Validity and Reliability

To ensure the reliability and construct validity of the research instrument, a pilot study was carried out during the preliminary stage of data collection. A group of 100 participants, drawn from the target population of construction engineering professionals, was selected to complete the structured questionnaire. The data obtained from this pilot phase were used exclusively for instrument validation and were not included in the final analysis of the main study. The primary statistical technique employed to assess construct validity was Pearson’s correlation coefficient, which measures the strength and direction of the linear association between individual items and their corresponding dimensions. This method is particularly suitable for validating instruments that utilize ordinal scales such as the 5-point Likert scale applied in this study. Each item was correlated with its respective sub-dimension under the main constructs—Adaptive Leadership and Crisis Management—to confirm that the items accurately captured the intended theoretical domains.

High and statistically significant Pearson correlation values between individual items and their associated constructs provided strong evidence of construct validity. These findings indicate that the measurement items were well-aligned with the conceptual framework of the study, effectively representing the adaptive leadership traits and crisis response components they were designed to assess. This validation approach aligns with the best practices in quantitative research, as noted by Price, Jhangiani, and Chiang [52], who emphasize the importance of strong item-total correlations in establishing internal consistency and measurement robustness. Moreover, as highlighted by Özdemir, Toraman, and Kutlu [53], Pearson correlation remains a widely accepted and practical tool for evaluating Likert-type questionnaire items, especially in the early validation stages of applied research.

During the pilot phase of this study, the reliability of the questionnaire was rigorously assessed to confirm the internal consistency of the measurement instrument. Reliability, in this context, refers to the extent to which the items designed to measure the same underlying construct yield consistent and coherent responses across different participants [54]. Ensuring high reliability is essential for establishing the credibility and stability of the research findings, as it reflects the degree to which the instrument minimizes random measurement errors and produces replicable results under consistent conditions. In particular, internal consistency reliability was examined using Cronbach’s Alpha, a widely recognized statistical indicator used to determine whether multiple items grouped within the same construct are reliably measuring that construct. A higher Cronbach’s Alpha value (typically ≥0.70) indicates that the items have a strong correlation with one another and are thus suitable for use in quantitative analysis. This step was crucial given that the study’s main variables—Adaptive Leadership and Crisis Management—are multidimensional and rely on multiple item clusters for each dimension.

As emphasized by Price, Jhangiani, and Chiang [52], strong internal consistency among items enhances the dependability of the instrument, ensuring that the data collected accurately reflect the theoretical framework of the study. By validating reliability during the pilot stage, the study ensures that the full-scale questionnaire is methodologically sound and capable of capturing consistent data across various dimensions of leadership behavior and crisis response effectiveness.

5.4. Data Analysis Techniques

The data collected from the questionnaire was analyzed using a combination of descriptive and inferential statistical methods to assess the relationship between adaptive leadership dimensions and crisis management effectiveness in the construction engineering sector.

5.4.1. Descriptive Analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the demographic characteristics of respondents and provide a general overview of response patterns across the study variables. This process involves calculating measures such as the mean and standard deviation (SD) for individual items and composite constructs across the questionnaire. The mean serves as a measure of central tendency, offering insight into the average response levels for each variable, while the standard deviation captures the degree of variability or dispersion around the mean, highlighting the extent of consensus or divergence among participants.

5.4.2. Normality Analysis

Normality testing is a fundamental prerequisite in quantitative research, particularly when using inferential statistical techniques, as it helps determine whether the data are appropriately distributed for parametric analysis. Two of the most commonly used indicators to assess normality are skewness and kurtosis. Skewness measures the degree of asymmetry in the distribution of values, while kurtosis assesses the “peakedness” or flatness of the distribution relative to a normal curve. For a dataset to be considered approximately normal, skewness and kurtosis values should generally fall within the range of ±2, a threshold supported by statistical literature for moderately sized samples [55]. Values beyond these limits may suggest a significant deviation from normality, warranting data transformation or the application of non-parametric methods.

5.4.3. Multicollinearity Analysis

Multicollinearity analysis is a vital step in ensuring the accuracy and interpretability of regression-based techniques, particularly in structural equation modeling. Multicollinearity arises when two or more independent variables are highly correlated, making it difficult to determine their distinct effects on the dependent variable. This can lead to inflated standard errors, unstable coefficient estimates, and reduced reliability of the model’s explanatory power [44].

To detect multicollinearity, the study uses Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance values. VIF indicates how much the variance of a regression coefficient is increased due to multicollinearity, while Tolerance represents the inverse of VIF. According to Hair et al. [55], VIF values greater than 5.0 (and in stricter cases, above 10.0) and Tolerance values below 0.20 signal problematic multicollinearity. In this study, VIF values was calculated for all independent variables related to adaptive leadership to ensure that multicollinearity does not compromise the integrity of the structural model. This step enhances the robustness and validity of the analytical results.

5.4.4. Structural Equation Modelling

For hypothesis testing and evaluation of the conceptual model, inferential analysis was conducted using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The PLS-SEM analysis employed a bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples to obtain robust estimates of standard errors and confidence intervals. Percentile 95% confidence intervals were calculated for all path coefficients to assess their statistical significance and reliability. This technique is particularly suitable for studies involving complex models with multiple latent constructs and indicators, as it allows for simultaneous testing of measurement and structural models. The analysis was performed using SmartPLS 4.0, which provides robust tools for assessing reliability, validity, and path relationships. This approach ensures a rigorous examination of how adaptive leadership traits, such as flexibility, emotional intelligence, and collaboration, impact key dimensions of crisis management, including preparedness, containment, recovery, and organizational learning.

5.5. Ethical Considerations

During the data collection process, ethical principles were strictly observed to ensure the rights, dignity, and confidentiality of all participants. The study used a self-administered questionnaire, and participation was entirely voluntary. Respondents were informed about the purpose of the study, assured that their responses would remain anonymous, and that all information would be treated with strict confidentiality. No personal identifiers were collected, and participants had the right to withdraw at any point without any consequences. The data collected were securely stored and used solely for academic and research purposes, in line with ethical research practices.

6. Results and Discussion

This section presents the results of the statistical analysis conducted to assess the impact of adaptive leadership on crisis management effectiveness in complex construction engineering projects across Saudi Arabia. It begins with the response rate of the survey to establish the adequacy of the collected data. This is followed by normality assessment to evaluate data distribution and multi-collinearity diagnostics to check for inter-correlations among the independent variables. Next, the demographic profile of the respondents is presented to contextualize the sample characteristics. Descriptive statistics are then reported to summarize the respondents’ perceptions of the main constructs. Subsequently, the measurement model is evaluated to test construct reliability and validity using established criteria such as composite reliability, average variance extracted (AVE), and discriminant validity. Finally, the structural model is analyzed to test the study’s hypotheses, assess path coefficients, and determine the statistical significance of the relationships between adaptive leadership traits and crisis management effectiveness.

6.1. Response Rate

In the present study, 200 questionnaires were distributed to construction and engineering professionals across various projects in Saudi Arabia, employing a convenience sampling technique. Of these, 183 questionnaires were completed and returned in usable form, resulting in a response rate of 91.5%. This response rate far exceeds the widely accepted threshold for survey research [44].

6.2. Demographic Data of the Respondents

To provide a comprehensive overview of the study sample, demographic data were gathered through the administered questionnaire. This section presents key characteristics of the respondents, including gender, age, educational attainment, job title, and tenure in their current position. A detailed summary of these demographic attributes is presented in

Table 2. Respondent Demographic Profile.

No.	Respondent Profile	Category	Frequency (n = 183)	Percentage (%)
1	Gender	Male	142	77.6%
		Female	41	22.4%
		Total	183	100.0%
2	Age	20–30 years	38	20.8%
		31–40 years	71	38.8%
		41–50 years	49	26.8%
		51+ years	25	13.6%
		Total	183	100.0%
3	Educational Attainment	High School	5	2.7%
		Bachelor’s Degree	88	48.1%
		Master’s Degree	62	33.9%
		PhD	23	12.6%
		Other	5	2.7%
		Total	183	100.0%
4	Tenure in Current Position	Less than 1 year	17	9.3%
		1–5 years	69	37.7%
		6–10 years	54	29.5%
		11+ years	43	23.5%
		Total	183	100.0%
5	Job Title	Engineer	76	41.5%
		Project Manager	54	29.5%
		Supervisor	39	21.3%
		Other	14	7.7%
		Total	183	100.0%

. The results demonstrate the relevance of the respondents to the investigation of adaptive leadership and crisis management in Saudi Arabia’s construction engineering sector. The demographic profile of the sample is predominantly male (77.6%) and largely composed of mid-career professionals aged 31–40 (38.8%) This distribution reflects the current workforce composition in the Saudi construction sector, where civil engineering remains a male-dominated profession due to cultural and institutional norms. Nonetheless, the overrepresentation of these groups may limit the generalizability of the findings to more diverse or early-career populations. Educationally, the majority held bachelor’s or master’s degrees, suggesting a well-qualified group capable of offering insights into leadership practices. Most participants had substantial tenure in their roles, and job titles were mainly distributed among engineers, project managers, and supervisors, positions directly involved in project execution and crisis handling. These characteristics underscore the appropriateness and credibility of the sample in examining leadership behaviors in complex construction environments.

6.3. Reliability and Validity Results

As outlined in Section 3, a pilot study was carried out to verify the validity and reliability of the measurement instrument prior to the main data collection phase. Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability (CR) and standardized factor loadings values were calculated for each of the key constructs and dimensions included in the model, particularly the six dimensions of Adaptive Leadership, flexibility in decision-making, emotional intelligence, leader-follower communication, problem-solving adaptability, resilience, and fostering collaboration, and the dependent variable, Crisis Management.

Table 3. Assessment for Measurement Model.

Construct	Items (Indicators)	Reliability			Validity
		Factor Loading >0.70	Compost Reliability CR >0.70	Cronbach’s Alpha >0.70	Convergent Validity AVE >0.50
Flexibility in Decision-Making	FL1	0.917	0.926	0.880	0.807
	FL2	0.921
	FL3	0.856
Emotional Intelligence	EI1	0.810	0.899	0.851	0.690
	EI2	0.834
	EI3	0.850
	EI4	0.829
Leader-Follower Communication	LF1	0.898	0.930	0.887	0.816
	LF2	0.915
	LF3	0.896
Problem-Solving Adaptability	PS1	0.814	0.928	0.897	0.765
	PS2	0.899
	PS3	0.902
	PS4	0.881
Resilience in Leadership	RS1	0.859	0.922	0.886	0.746
	RS2	0.872
	RS3	0.898
	RS4	0.825
Fostering Collaboration	FC1	0.857	0.910	0.852	0.772
	FC2	0.893
	FC3	0.885
Crises Management	CRS1	0.793	0.958	0.952	0.657
	CRS2	0.855
	CRS3	0.857
	CRS4	0.810
	CRS5	0.839
	CRS6	0.865
	CRS7	0.803
	CRS8	0.684
	CRS9	0.742
	CRS10	0.825
	CRS11	0.817
	CRS12	0.818

shows that the Cronbach’s alpha values for the retained items in each construct ranged from 0.851 to 0.952, indicating a high level of internal consistency across the questionnaire. These values not only exceed the generally accepted threshold of 0.70, considered the minimum standard for reliability [56,57], but also fall within the range that denotes excellent reliability, as coefficients above 0.80 are widely recognized as evidence of strong coherence among scale items.

The factor loading for most items were well above 0.80, which is indicative of high item reliability. For instance, loadings for items measuring flexibility in decision-making ranged from 0.856 to 0.921, while leader-follower communication ranged from 0.896 to 0.915. Even in the construct crisis management, which included 12 indicators, all items reported satisfactory loadings, including the lowest at 0.684, which is still within an acceptable range for exploratory studies.

Composite Reliability (CR) values ranged from 0.899 (Emotional Intelligence) to 0.958 (Crisis Management), all of which exceed the recommended threshold of 0.70 [55], indicating strong internal consistency across all measurement scales. Cronbach’s Alpha values ranged from 0.851 (Emotional Intelligence) to 0.952 (Crisis Management), further supporting the reliability of each scale. These results confirm that the items within each construct consistently measure the same underlying concept, reinforcing the robustness of the measurement model.

The detailed results of the construct validity analysis are provided in Table 3. The findings indicate that the majority of items performed well, all items achieve a Pearson correlation coefficient above the threshold of 0.30 and demonstrating statistical significance at the p < 0.05 level, as recommended by Hair et al. [55]. This suggests that the instrument is largely effective in capturing the six dimensions of adaptive leadership within the construction engineering context in Saudi Arabia. The results offer strong preliminary evidence that the questionnaire can be reliably used in the main study to assess the relationship between adaptive leadership and crisis management.

The convergent validity is typically assessed using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE), with a recommended minimum threshold of 0.50 [55]. In this study, AVE values ranged from 0.657 (Crisis Management) to 0.816 (Leader-Follower Communication), all exceeding the required cutoff. These findings suggest that the constructs explain a substantial portion of variance in their respective indicators, and that measurement error is minimized.

6.4. Normality and Multi-Collinearity Test Results

Table 4. Results of Normality and Multi-collinearity test.

Variable	Normality Test		Multi-Collinearity Test
	Skewness	Kurtosis	Tolerance	VIF
Flexibility in Decision-Making	−0.612	−0.422	0.522	1.17
Emotional Intelligence	−0.452	0.312	0.317	3.15
Leader-Follower Communication	−0.358	−0.089	0.411	2.35
Problem-Solving Adaptability	−0.852	0.617	0.632	1.78
Resilience in Leadership	−0.745	−0.145	0.785	2.52
Fostering Collaboration	−0.714	0.148	0.658	3.11

summarize the results for normality and multi-collinearity tests. According to Awang et al. [58], skewness and kurtosis values within the range of −2 to +2 are considered acceptable for SEM, indicating that the distribution does not significantly deviate from normality. The results reveal that all variables fall within the acceptable thresholds, ranging from −0.852 (for problem-solving adaptability and crisis management) to −0.358 (for leader-follower communication), suggesting a mild negative skew across the constructs. Similarly, kurtosis values range from −0.422 (flexibility in decision-making) to 0.617 (problem-solving adaptability), indicating distributions that are neither excessively peaked nor too flat.

To assess whether multicollinearity posed a concern in this study, both Tolerance and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values were computed for each of the independent variables. As suggested by Hair, Ringle, and Sarstedt [59], acceptable thresholds include VIF values below 5.0 and tolerance values above 0.20. As shown in Table 4, all tolerance values range between 0.317 and 0.785, and all VIF values lie between 1.17 and 3.15. These results confirm that none of the independent variables exhibit problematic multicollinearity. Emotional intelligence and fostering collaboration show relatively higher VIF values (3.15 and 3.11, respectively), but these are still well below the critical threshold of 5.0. Therefore, it can be concluded that multicollinearity is not a concern in this dataset, and all independent variables can be reliably included in the structural model analysis.

6.5. Descriptive Analysis

This section provides the descriptive statistics for all constructs assessed in the study, detailing the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) for each item included in the questionnaire. The constructs examined in this study are categorized into two primary groups. The first category comprises the independent variable, adaptive leadership, which is operationalized through six key dimensions: flexibility in decision-making, emotional intelligence, leader-follower communication, problem-solving adaptability, resilience in leadership, and fostering collaboration. The second category includes the dependent variable, crisis management effectiveness, which is assessed through five interrelated dimensions: crisis signal detection, crisis preparation, crisis containment, crisis recovery, and crisis learning.

6.5.1. Flexibility in Decision-Making

Flexibility in Decision-Making refers to the extent to which leaders are able to adjust their decisions and strategies in response to changing circumstances and emerging challenges during crises. This construct was measured using several items that assess a leader’s ability to remain open to alternative solutions, revise plans when necessary, and make timely yet thoughtful decisions under pressure. The results presented in

Table 5. Descriptive Statistics of Flexibility in Decision-Making.

No.	Item	Mean	Std. Deviation	Relative Importance
1	Decisions are changed when new challenges arise during a crisis.	3.77	0.856	High
2	Adaptability is prioritized over strict adherence to plans in uncertain situations.	4.15	1.012	High
3	Alternative solutions are encouraged from the team when unexpected obstacles appear.	3.74	0.638	High

indicate that participants generally perceive this leadership trait as highly important during crisis situations. The item “Adaptability is prioritized over strict adherence to plans in uncertain situations” recorded the highest mean score (M = 4.15, SD = 1.012), suggesting strong agreement on the need for leaders to remain flexible under pressure. This was followed by “Decisions are changed when new challenges arise during a crisis” (M = 3.77, SD = 0.856), and “Alternative solutions are encouraged from the team when unexpected obstacles appear” (M = 3.74, SD = 0.638). All three items were classified as having high relative importance, indicating that the ability to adapt decisions and encourage team input in dynamic conditions is perceived as a critical leadership quality for effective crisis management in the construction sector.

6.5.2. Emotional Intelligence

Table 6. Descriptive Statistics of Emotional Intelligence.

No.	Item	Mean	Std. Deviation	Relative Importance
1	Team stress is reduced to improve crisis management results.	3.44	1.021	Moderate
2	Additional support is provided to overwhelmed team members during crises.	4.52	0.963	High
3	Emotional cues are relied upon in leadership during high-pressure situations.	3.12	0.896	Moderate
4	Open emotional expression is allowed to help manage crises better	3.91	0.615	High

presents the descriptive statistics for the emotional intelligence dimension of adaptive leadership, which reflects a leader’s ability to recognize, understand, and manage both their own emotions and those of others during crisis situations. The results show variability in how different aspects of emotional intelligence are perceived. The item “Additional support is provided to overwhelmed team members during crises” had the highest mean score (M = 4.52, SD = 0.963), indicating strong agreement among respondents and a high level of perceived importance. Similarly, “Open emotional expression is allowed to help manage crises better” was rated highly (M = 3.91, SD = 0.615), suggesting its relevance in creating a supportive environment during high-pressure situations. In contrast, “Team stress is reduced to improve crisis management results” (M = 3.44, SD = 1.021) and “Emotional cues are relied upon in leadership during high-pressure situations” (M = 3.12, SD = 0.896) received moderate ratings, indicating more varied opinions on these aspects. Overall, the findings highlight that while certain elements of emotional intelligence are strongly valued, others may require greater emphasis in leadership development within the construction engineering context.

6.5.3. Leader-Follower Communication

Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of Leader-Follower Communication.

No.	Item	Mean	Std. Deviation	Relative Importance
1	Communication styles are adjusted to fit team needs during crises.	4.11	1.015	High
2	Open dialogue and feedback are encouraged in crisis management.	3.89	0.856	High
3	Stories or real examples are used to explain crisis response actions.	3.93	0.753	High

presents the descriptive statistics for the leader-follower communication dimension, which is a key component of adaptive leadership in crisis management. The results reveal consistently high levels of agreement among participants regarding the importance of effective communication during crisis situations. The item “Communication styles are adjusted to fit team needs during crises” recorded the highest mean score (M = 4.11, SD = 1.015), indicating that adaptability in communication is highly valued by professionals in construction engineering. Similarly, the items “Stories or real examples are used to explain crisis response actions” (M = 3.93, SD = 0.753) and “Open dialogue and feedback are encouraged in crisis management” (M = 3.89, SD = 0.856) also received high ratings, highlighting the importance of clarity, relatability, and two-way communication. The consistently high relative importance across all items suggests that effective leader-follower communication is perceived as a critical element for enhancing team coordination, decision-making, and overall crisis response effectiveness in the construction sector

6.5.4. Problem-Solving Adaptability

Table 8. Descriptive Statistics of Problem-Solving Adaptability.

No.	Item	Mean	Std. Deviation	Relative Importance
1	Out-of-the-box thinking is encouraged for solving crisis problems.	3.26	0.785	Moderate
2	Unconventional solutions are accepted when handling crises.	4.18	0.622	High
3	Resources are re-allocated quickly to address urgent crisis issues.	4.06	0.852	High
4	Problem-solving strategies are evaluated as the crisis unfolds.	3.89	0.763	High

presents the descriptive statistics for the dimension of problem-solving adaptability, which reflects a leader’s ability to apply creative and flexible approaches in crisis situations. The findings indicate that participants generally recognize the importance of this leadership trait, particularly in dynamic construction environments. The item “Unconventional solutions are accepted when handling crises” recorded the highest mean score (M = 4.18, SD = 0.622), followed closely by “Resources are re-allocated quickly to address urgent crisis issues” (M = 4.06, SD = 0.852) and “Problem-solving strategies are evaluated as the crisis unfolds” (M = 3.89, SD = 0.763). These results suggest that leaders are expected to respond swiftly and adaptively to shifting conditions during crises. However, the item “Out-of-the-box thinking is encouraged for solving crisis problems” received a lower mean score (M = 3.26, SD = 0.785) and was rated as moderately important, indicating that while creativity is valued, it may not be emphasized as strongly as practical adaptability in the construction context. Overall, the results underscore the importance of proactive and flexible problem-solving in enhancing crisis response effectiveness.

6.5.5. Resilience in Leadership

The descriptive statistics for the resilience in leadership dimension are presented in

Table 9. Descriptive Statistics of Resilience in Leadership.

No.	Item	Mean	Std. Deviation	Relative Importance
1	Setbacks are treated as learning opportunities during crises.	3.11	0.936	Moderate
2	Humor is used to improve morale in stressful situations.	3.71	0.785	High
3	Small wins are focused on to maintain motivation during a crisis.	4.15	0.611	High
4	Commitment to organizational goals is maintained to overcome crises	3.96	0.585	High

, which reflects a leader’s ability to maintain stability, motivation, and focus in the face of crisis-related challenges. The item “Small wins are focused on to maintain motivation during a crisis” received the highest mean score (M = 4.15, SD = 0.611), indicating strong agreement among participants on the importance of recognizing incremental progress to sustain team morale. This was followed by “Commitment to organizational goals is maintained to overcome crises” (M = 3.96, SD = 0.585) and “Humor is used to improve morale in stressful situations” (M = 3.71, SD = 0.785), both of which were rated as having high relative importance. These findings suggest that resilience, as demonstrated through positivity, perseverance, and a goal-oriented mindset, is viewed as a critical leadership trait in construction project environments. The item “Setbacks are treated as learning opportunities during crises” recorded a lower mean (M = 3.11, SD = 0.936), with moderate importance, indicating that while learning from adversity is recognized, it may be less emphasized in practice compared to more immediate motivational strategies. Overall, the results highlight the importance of emotional endurance and proactive encouragement in maintaining effective leadership during crises.

6.5.6. Fostering Collaboration

The descriptive statistics for the fostering collaboration dimension of adaptive leadership are given in

Table 10. Descriptive Statistics of Fostering Collaboration.

No.	Item	Mean	Std. Deviation	Relative Importance
1	Cross-functional teams are formed to address complex crisis situations.	3.79	0.853	Moderate
2	All team members are empowered to contribute during crisis responses.	3.88	0.715	High
3	Conflicts are resolved quickly to keep the team working together during crises.	4.11	0.693	High

, which emphasizes the importance of teamwork, inclusion, and coordinated action during crisis situations. The results indicate a generally positive perception among respondents regarding the role of collaborative leadership in managing crises. The highest-rated item, “Conflicts are resolved quickly to keep the team working together during crises” (M = 4.11, SD = 0.693), reflects strong agreement on the need for maintaining harmony and efficiency under pressure. This is closely followed by “All team members are empowered to contribute during crisis responses” (M = 3.88, SD = 0.715), highlighting the value of inclusive leadership that enables diverse input in urgent decision-making. The item “Cross-functional teams are formed to address complex crisis situations” received a slightly lower mean score (M = 3.79, SD = 0.853), with a relative importance rated as moderate. This suggests that while team collaboration is recognized as important, formal cross-functional coordination may be less consistently implemented in practice. Overall, the findings emphasize that fostering collaboration—particularly through conflict resolution and team empowerment—is seen as a crucial leadership behavior for effective crisis management in construction projects.

6.5.7. Crises Management

Table 11. Descriptive Statistics of Worker Health.

No.	Item	Mean	Std. Deviation	Relative Importance
1	Employees are trained to report early signs of potential crises.	3.88	0.567	High
2	Leadership takes proactive measures based on risk assessments.	3.76	0.639	High
3	There is a formal crisis management plan in place.	4.15	0.963	High
4	Leadership communicates promptly during a crisis.	4.35	0.658	High
5	Employees work together efficiently during a crisis.	3.98	1.015	High
6	My organization has a plan for restoring normal operations post-crisis.	4.11	0.785	High
7	The organization reviews its crisis response strategies after each event.	4.01	0.822	High
8	Lessons learned from crises are documented.	3.96	0.801	High
9	Leadership adapts policies based on past crisis experiences.	4.17	0.789	High
10	Employees are encouraged to share feedback on crisis responses.	4.22	1.112	High
11	Crisis response failures are analyzed and improved upon.	3.89	1.052	High
12	The organization invests in continuous crisis management training	3.17	0.963	Moderate

presents the descriptive statistics for the crisis management variable, assessed as a unidimensional construct in this study. The results indicate a generally high level of agreement among respondents regarding their organization’s crisis management practices. The item “Leadership communicates promptly during a crisis” received the highest mean score (M = 4.35, SD = 0.658), highlighting the critical role of timely and transparent communication in effective crisis response. Other highly rated items include “Employees are encouraged to share feedback on crisis responses” (M = 4.22, SD = 1.112) and “Leadership adapts policies based on past crisis experiences” (M = 4.17, SD = 0.789), suggesting that learning and adaptation are also seen as key strengths in the organizations surveyed.

The presence of structured planning is also reflected in high mean scores for items such as “There is a formal crisis management plan in place” (M = 4.15, SD = 0.963) and “My organization has a plan for restoring normal operations post-crisis” (M = 4.11, SD = 0.785). These findings indicate that participants perceive their organizations as being well-prepared for managing crises and recovering operations. Notably, the organization invests in continuous crisis management training received the lowest mean score (M = 3.17, SD = 0.963), with a relative importance rated as moderate. This finding suggests that while adaptive leadership traits are valued, structured and continuous training remains underprioritized—an area requiring attention to ensure sustained crisis preparedness. This suggests a potential area for improvement, as ongoing training is essential for maintaining and enhancing crisis readiness over time.

Overall, the results demonstrate a strong organizational emphasis on proactive leadership, structured planning, feedback integration, and post-crisis learning, all of which contribute positively to crisis management effectiveness in the construction engineering sector. However, the moderate rating for training investments signals the need for more consistent capacity-building initiatives to sustain these efforts.

6.6. Hypotheses Testing

To address the study’s objectives and provide answers to the research questions, the proposed hypotheses were tested through structural model analysis. This evaluation was based on the examination of path coefficients, standard deviations, t-statistics, and p-values, all derived from a bootstrapping procedure. The analysis focused on the direct effects corresponding to hypotheses H1 through H6, each representing the relationship between a dimension of adaptive leadership and crisis management effectiveness. The results of these hypothesis tests are summarized in

Table 12. Structural Model Assessment for the direct effect hypotheses.

Hypotheses Number	Path Coefficient	Standard Deviation	T Statistics	p-Values	Result
H1	0.530	0.028	18.832	0.000	Supported
H2	0.037	0.014	2.592	0.010	Supported
H3	−0.012	0.025	0.466	0.641	Not Supported
H4	0.044	0.019	2.298	0.022	Supported
H5	0.066	0.030	2.201	0.028	Supported
H6	0.427	0.026	16.600	0.000	Supported

and discussed as follows:

H1: 

Flexibility in Decision-Making has a significant effect on Crisis Management Effectiveness.

The findings strongly support H1, demonstrating that flexibility in decision-making significantly and positively influences crisis management outcomes in complex construction engineering projects. The path coefficient was 0.530, with a T-statistic of 18.832 and a p-value of 0.000, indicating a highly significant relationship. This suggests that when leaders are adaptable and capable of adjusting decisions in response to evolving situations, project teams are better equipped to navigate crises effectively. Flexible leadership enables quicker responses, reduces delays, and enhances organizational coordination during emergencies.

H2: 

Emotional Intelligence has a significant effect on Crisis Management Effectiveness.

H2 is supported by the data. The structural path linking emotional intelligence to crisis management yielded a coefficient of 0.037, a T-statistic of 2.592, and a p-value of 0.010, confirming statistical significance at the 0.05 level. This result highlights the importance of emotionally intelligent leadership in high-pressure environments. Leaders who are self-aware, empathetic, and able to regulate their emotions are more effective in maintaining team morale, facilitating communication, and making sound decisions under stress—key factors in managing crises successfully.

H3: 

Leader-Follower Communication has a significant effect on Crisis Management Effectiveness.

The results do not support H3. The path coefficient was −0.012, with a T-statistic of 0.466 and a p-value of 0.641, indicating a statistically non-significant relationship. This suggests that, in the context of this study, leader-follower communication was not perceived as a direct contributor to crisis management effectiveness. The discrepancy between the high mean scores for Leader-Follower Communication and its non-significant path coefficient may reflect several underlying complexities. First, the perceived importance of communication may exert its influence indirectly, being mediated or moderated by other adaptive leadership dimensions such as flexibility in decision-making, problem-solving adaptability, or collaborative engagement, which were not explicitly modeled in this study. Second, measurement-related factors—such as ceiling effects, limited variability, or subtle differences in how respondents interpreted survey items—could reduce the statistical significance despite high average ratings. Third, contextual factors specific to complex construction projects in Saudi Arabia, including organizational culture, project type, and stakeholder expectations, may alter the observable impact of communication on crisis management effectiveness. Collectively, these factors highlight that leader-follower communication, while valued by practitioners, may function in nuanced or conditional ways that are not fully captured by the current structural model, pointing to the need for future research to investigate indirect pathways, contextual contingencies, and multi-level effects.

H4: 

Problem-Solving Adaptability has a significant effect on Crisis Management Effectiveness.

The analysis supports H4. A positive path coefficient of 0.044, a T-statistic of 2.298, and a p-value of 0.022 indicate a significant relationship. This finding implies that leaders who can adapt their problem-solving approaches to rapidly changing and uncertain environments are better positioned to guide their teams through crises. The ability to identify alternative solutions, reassess priorities, and adjust tactics in real time enhances a project’s capacity to withstand and recover from disruptive events.

H5: 

Resilience in Leadership has a significant effect on Crisis Management Effectiveness.

H5 is also supported. The path from resilience in leadership to crisis management was found to be statistically significant, with a coefficient of 0.066, a T-statistic of 2.201, and a p-value of 0.028. This result suggests that resilient leaders—those who can maintain composure, optimism, and persistence under pressure—contribute positively to crisis resolution. Their ability to remain focused, motivate teams, and provide stable guidance during challenging times plays a crucial role in ensuring continuity and recovery.

H6: 

Fostering Collaboration has a significant effect on Crisis Management Effectiveness.

The findings provide strong support for H6. The path coefficient was 0.427, accompanied by a T-statistic of 16.600 and a p-value of 0.000, indicating a highly significant relationship. This result underscores the importance of collaborative leadership in navigating crises. Leaders who promote teamwork, open dialogue, and shared decision-making foster a collective problem-solving environment, which enhances responsiveness, coordination, and overall crisis management performance within construction engineering teams.

6.7. Comparison with Existing Studies

This study offers a more nuanced understanding of how cultural and contextual factors specific to Saudi Arabia’s construction industry may shape the effectiveness of adaptive leadership behaviors. For instance, in high-context and hierarchical cultures, decision-making flexibility and collaborative problem-solving may carry more practical weight than explicit leader-follower communication, which may be embedded in informal practices or overshadowed by authority structures. These dynamics suggest that leadership dimensions do not operate uniformly across contexts but are filtered through local norms, expectations, and communication styles. Recognizing these cultural layers enhances the theoretical relevance of our findings and underscores the importance of adapting leadership frameworks to account for regional specificities.

To enrich the contextual relevance of our findings and enhance their theoretical generalizability, this section provides a comparative analysis between the results of this study and findings from existing literature across different regions and sectors. While the study is grounded in the unique socio-economic and operational characteristics of Saudi Arabia’s construction industry, many of the observed leadership dynamics resonate with broader global patterns.

Our results demonstrate that flexibility in decision-making had the most substantial impact on crisis management effectiveness (β = 0.530, p < 0.001). This finding aligns closely with Irtaimeh et al. [19], who emphasized the critical role of strategic adaptability in navigating complex crises. Similarly, Settembre-Blundo et al. [20] and Lenz & Eckhard [21] reported that flexible and decentralized decision-making processes enhance organizational responsiveness, particularly in high-risk sectors. These parallels suggest that the capacity for rapid, context-sensitive decision-making is universally valuable in crisis leadership, regardless of regional or industry-specific variables.

The positive influence of fostering collaboration (β = 0.427, p < 0.001) also finds strong support in the literature. Studies by Olsen et al. [40] and Margherita et al. [41] underscore the importance of collaborative leadership and trust-building in improving organizational agility during disruptions. Our findings affirm that promoting shared responsibility and cross-functional teamwork is not only effective in Saudi construction projects, but also reflects a globally recognized best practice in crisis management.

Similarly, the significance of resilience in leadership (β = 0.066, p = 0.028) aligns with the work of Strehmel et al. [30] and Senbeto & Hon [39], who found that resilient leaders contribute to emotional stability, continuity, and long-term recovery following crises. This supports the view that resilience, even with a modest statistical effect, remains a key personal resource for effective leadership under pressure.

The positive contributions of problem-solving adaptability (β = 0.044, p = 0.022) and emotional intelligence (β = 0.037, p = 0.010) further echo international research. Studies by Nguyen et al. [36] and Orkibi [37] demonstrate how cognitive and emotional flexibility equip leaders to tackle uncertainty and facilitate creative responses. Meanwhile, Yuste [22] and David [23] emphasize the role of emotionally intelligent leadership in maintaining team cohesion and psychological safety during turbulent times.

One notable divergence from prior research concerns leader-follower communication, which did not show a statistically significant relationship with crisis management effectiveness in this study (β = −0.012, p = 0.641). This contrasts with findings from Li et al. [34] and Sarris [35], who highlight the importance of communicative clarity, rhetorical empathy, and vision in guiding teams through crisis situations. Several contextual factors may help explain this inconsistency. In highly dynamic or operationally intense project environments, such as those characterizing many construction sites in Saudi Arabia, crisis leadership may be more heavily influenced by immediate, action-oriented traits, such as adaptability, resilience, and problem-solving, than by formal communication practices. Moreover, communication in such settings may be embedded within broader leadership behaviors (e.g., emotional intelligence or collaborative action), making it less distinguishable as an isolated predictor of effectiveness. This does not diminish the importance of communication in crisis settings but rather suggests that its impact may be more indirect or context-dependent than other adaptive leadership dimensions.

In summary, this comparative analysis affirms that the majority of our findings are consistent with global literature on adaptive leadership in crisis settings. At the same time, the few observed divergences highlight the importance of accounting for contextual variables, such as organizational culture, project complexity, and industry-specific challenges, when evaluating leadership effectiveness in high-risk environments.

6.8. Practical Significance

The findings of this study provide evidence-based guidance for leadership development, organizational policy, and crisis preparedness strategies in the Saudi construction sector, with broader relevance to similarly complex contexts. The practical implications are directly informed by the quantitative results of the structural equation modelling, ensuring that recommendations are grounded in empirical evidence.

Flexibility in decision-making emerged as a highly influential factor in crisis management effectiveness, with a path coefficient of 0.530 (T = 18.832, p < 0.001). This indicates that leaders who can adapt decisions in response to evolving situations enable project teams to navigate crises more effectively. In practical terms, organizations should empower leaders to make context-responsive choices, particularly in scenarios involving sudden material shortages, regulatory changes, or workforce fluctuations common in Saudi construction projects. Embedding flexibility into operational frameworks, decentralizing decision-making where appropriate, and cultivating a culture that encourages initiative under pressure are essential strategies for enhancing organizational agility during crises.

Emotional intelligence was also shown to have a significant effect on crisis management (β = 0.037, T = 2.592, p = 0.010), highlighting the importance of leaders who are self-aware, empathetic, and able to regulate their emotions. Developing these competencies through leadership training programs can help leaders maintain team morale, facilitate communication, and make sound decisions under stress, which are critical factors for successful crisis navigation in high-pressure construction environments.

Collaboration proved to be another strong predictor of effective crisis management (β = 0.427, T = 16.600, p < 0.001). Leaders who promote teamwork, trust, and shared accountability foster collective problem-solving and coordination, enhancing responsiveness during emergencies. In the Saudi construction context, where multidisciplinary coordination is commonplace, investing in structured mechanisms for collaboration and team alignment can strengthen both routine operations and crisis response.

Problem-solving adaptability was found to positively influence crisis management outcomes (β = 0.044, T = 2.298, p = 0.022). Leaders who can adjust their problem-solving approaches in real time, reassess priorities, and identify alternative solutions improve their teams’ capacity to withstand and recover from disruptive events. Targeted training in adaptive problem-solving, scenario planning, and contingency management can therefore enhance organizational resilience.

Resilience in leadership was also significant (β = 0.066, T = 2.201, p = 0.028), suggesting that leaders who maintain composure, optimism, and persistence during crises contribute positively to team stability and recovery. Programs designed to build resilience, such as coaching, reflective practice, and stress management support, can reinforce leaders’ ability to provide psychological safety and maintain continuity amid high-pressure situations.

Although leader-follower communication did not show a statistically significant direct effect (β = −0.012, T = 0.466, p = 0.641), it remains a practically relevant behavior. Effective communication may manifest indirectly through integration with other leadership traits such as emotional intelligence and collaboration. Leaders are encouraged to practice active listening, provide directive clarity, and demonstrate empathy, recognizing that these behaviors, while not independently measurable in the model, can enhance crisis management outcomes when embedded within broader leadership competencies.

6.9. Theoretical Contributions

This study offers several important contributions to the theoretical understanding of adaptive leadership in crisis contexts, particularly within high-stakes, project-based environments such as the construction and engineering sector. First, the research introduces a validated model of adaptive leadership tailored to crisis scenarios in engineering-intensive industries. By operationalizing key dimensions such as flexibility in decision-making, emotional responsiveness, and collaborative behavior, the study extends existing leadership theories into real-world crisis conditions. These dimensions, while well-theorized, are contextualized here in ways that reflect the complexity, urgency, and interdisciplinary nature of construction megaprojects.

Second, the study addresses a notable gap in the literature by providing region-specific empirical evidence from Saudi Arabia’s construction sector, an environment that has been underrepresented in mainstream leadership and crisis research. In doing so, it contributes culturally grounded insights that align with the country’s broader socio-economic transformation under Vision 2030. The findings help to theorize how adaptive leadership is shaped by local organizational structures, decision hierarchies, and project delivery models.

Third, the significant results related to decision-making flexibility, problem-solving adaptability, resilience, and fostering collaboration reinforce the foundational principles of adaptive leadership theory. These traits emerge as practically relevant and theoretically consistent across crisis situations, adding further support to their inclusion in leadership models that address dynamic and uncertain environments.

Fourth, the study makes a distinctive theoretical contribution by reporting a non-significant relationship between leader-follower communication and crisis management effectiveness. This finding challenges dominant assumptions in leadership literature and prompts a re-examination of how communication functions in high-hierarchy, action-oriented environments such as Saudi Arabia’s construction industry. It suggests that in such contexts, the influence of communication may be more embedded within other leadership behaviors—such as emotional intelligence or collaborative action—rather than operating as an isolated variable. Finally, by situating the research within the framework of complex engineering megaprojects, the study contributes to emerging theories of crisis leadership under uncertainty. It offers new directions for theory development in fields such as construction management, project governance, and organizational behavior, especially in relation to how leaders manage risk, maintain team stability, and respond to rapidly shifting project demands.

7. Limitations of the Study

While this study offers important insights into the influence of adaptive leadership on crisis management effectiveness within complex construction engineering projects in Saudi Arabia, several limitations should be acknowledged.

Firstly, the research was conducted solely within the Saudi construction sector, which has unique cultural, regulatory, and operational characteristics. Although the focus on this high-risk and dynamic environment is well-justified given the study’s objectives, the findings may not be directly transferable to other national contexts or industries where leadership structures, workforce compositions, and crisis response mechanisms differ. Nonetheless, many of the leadership behaviors examined—such as flexibility in decision-making, emotional intelligence, and collaborative engagement—are supported by international literature and may hold relevance in comparable regional contexts, particularly in GCC countries like the UAE, Qatar, and Kuwait, where construction practices and project environments share notable similarities.

Moreover, the study sample was geographically concentrated in northern Saudi Arabia. While this regional focus provided access to practitioners directly engaged in complex construction engineering projects, it inevitably narrows the scope of inference. The construction practices, regulatory enforcement, and organizational cultures in northern Saudi Arabia may differ from those in central or western regions of the Kingdom, which could limit the broader applicability of the results. We therefore acknowledge that this geographic concentration reduces external validity, and future studies should expand sampling across multiple regions to capture greater diversity within the Saudi construction sector.

Secondly, this study employed convenience sampling due to the practical challenges of reaching specialized professionals actively involved in complex construction engineering projects, where access is often constrained by project schedules and organizational gatekeeping. While this approach allowed for targeted insights from relevant experts, we acknowledge that it may limit the generalizability of the findings, and we recommend that future research explore probability-based sampling to enhance external validity.

Moreover, this study did not examine potential mediating or moderating variables that might influence the relationship between adaptive leadership dimensions and crisis management outcomes such as organizational size, project complexity, industry sub-sector, and leadership experience, which presents an opportunity for future research to explore these complex interactions more comprehensively.

Additionally, the research did not account for certain organizational or project-level factors that may moderate leadership effectiveness during crises—such as firm size, project complexity (e.g., infrastructure vs. residential), contract types, or the presence of third-party audits and external stakeholder pressures. Including such variables in future studies could yield a more nuanced understanding of how adaptive leadership functions in varying construction settings.

Furthermore, the research relied on self-reported data, which, although designed with careful attention to clarity, anonymity, and neutrality, may still introduce perceptual bias. Self-reported measures can reflect individual interpretations, subjective perceptions, or socially desirable responses rather than objectively observed behaviors. This limitation is particularly relevant in leadership and crisis management research, where respondents may unintentionally overestimate positive traits or underreport challenges. While such data remain valuable for capturing professional perspectives, their subjectivity could affect the robustness of the findings. Future research may benefit from triangulating survey data with observational methods, organizational performance indicators, or multi-source assessments to mitigate these biases and strengthen validity.

Lastly, this study employed a cross-sectional design due to practical constraints related to time and resource availability, as well as the exploratory nature of the research; however, we acknowledge that this design limits causal interpretations and recommend longitudinal studies in future research to better assess temporal and causal relationships. Future studies are encouraged to adopt longitudinal or mixed-methods approaches to explore the evolution of leadership behaviors and their real-time impact during different phases of a crisis.

These limitations highlight important directions for future research—namely, validating the model across diverse geographic and organizational contexts, incorporating additional moderating variables, and employing more robust methodological designs to strengthen causal inference and generalizability.

8. Conclusions

This study investigated the impact of adaptive leadership on crisis management effectiveness in complex construction engineering projects within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Adaptive leadership was conceptualized through six core dimensions: flexibility in decision-making, emotional intelligence, leader-follower communication, problem-solving adaptability, resilience in leadership, and fostering collaboration. A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted among managerial and supervisory personnel across major engineering and construction firms, yielding 183 valid responses through a non-probability convenience sampling method. The validity and reliability of the research instrument were confirmed through expert review, factor loadings, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Composite Reliability (CR), and Cronbach’s Alpha. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, normality checks via skewness and kurtosis, and multicollinearity assessment using Variance Inflation Factors (VIF), all within acceptable limits. Structural relationships were tested using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The key findings are summarized as follows:

• Flexibility in decision-making was found to have a statistically significant and strong positive effect on crisis management effectiveness (β = 0.530, p < 0.001). This indicates that leaders who can adapt their decisions quickly in response to changing project conditions play a critical role in enhancing the organization’s ability to navigate crises effectively.
• Fostering collaboration demonstrated a highly significant and positive impact on crisis management (β = 0.427, p < 0.001). This suggests that promoting teamwork, shared responsibility, and collective problem-solving improves coordination and responsiveness during crisis situations.
• Resilience in leadership also showed a statistically significant relationship with crisis management effectiveness (β = 0.066, p = 0.028), emphasizing the value of maintaining composure, persistence, and optimism in uncertain or high-pressure conditions.
• Problem-solving adaptability (β = 0.044, p = 0.022) and emotional intelligence (β = 0.037, p = 0.010) both demonstrated significant positive effects, reinforcing the importance of analytical flexibility and emotional regulation in managing stress, making informed decisions, and maintaining group morale during emergencies.
• In contrast, leader-follower communication did not exhibit a statistically significant effect on crisis management effectiveness (β = −0.012, p = 0.641). This finding suggests that while communication remains an essential leadership function, it may not, in isolation, directly enhance crisis outcomes. In fast-paced or high-stakes project environments, more dynamic leadership traits—such as adaptability and resilience—may have a more immediate and measurable impact.
• Overall, the model explained 96.7% of the variance in crisis management effectiveness, indicating a very high level of predictive power. These findings validate the proposed conceptual model and underscore the critical role of adaptive leadership traits in driving successful crisis responses within the construction engineering sector in Saudi Arabia.