Production and Characterization of Biomass Briquettes from Tannery Solid Waste
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Sample Collection
2.3. Sample Pre-Treatment
- Sorting: The feedstock was carefully sorted manually to remove impurities such as pieces of wood, bone, metal and any other unwanted materials.
- Drying: Hair, pre-fleshing and lime fleshing wastes from the beam house/pre-tanning unit were air dried to reduce the moisture content (up to 90% dryness) and then they were evenly mixed and oven dried at 50 °C. Chrome shavings and buffing dust from tanned leather wastes were oven dried at 105 °C in accordance with the methods described by Ozgunay et al. [19]. The local starch used as binder was air dried at room temperature for 48 h.
- Size Reduction: The biomass was then reduced in size by milling until it could pass through a screen or reaches a suitably small and uniform size (1 mm). The hair waste being very light was reduced to 0.5 mm.
- Calcination: Exactly 500 g of each of the dried samples were put in a crucible and placed in an oven at a temperature of 450 °C for 30 min. The calcined samples were then transferred into a silver plate to reduce the temperature and avoid further combustion.
- Maceration: The waste was macerated to provide uniform consistency (slurry). Maceration of the carbonized Calcined Hair (HR), Fleshing (FL), Chrome Shavings (CS) and Buffing Dust (BD) samples were done by mixing equal amounts of each “sample” with “cassava starch binder” and “water” at the ratio of 4:5:1 [19]. The non-carbonized feed was macerated by mixing varying amounts of each sample with the binder and water at the same ratio. The starch was mixed with hot water to form slurry before adding the feeds so as to facilitate flow of lignin present in the biomass, which acts as a natural binder to increase adhesion between intermolecular particles. Total volume of water used was 120 cm3.
2.4. Preliminary Analysis
2.4.1. Proximate Analysis of the Pretreated Sample
- (a)
- Percentage volatile matter: The percentage volatile matter (PVM) was determined using the standard method CEN/TS 15148. Two grams of briquette sample was pulverized and oven dried at 105 °C until its weight was constant. The sample was then heated at 550 °C for 10 min and weighed after cooling. The PVM was calculated using:
- (b)
- Percentage moisture content on dry basis: The percentage moisture content (PMC) was determined using standard CEN/TS 14774. Three grams of briquette sample was oven dried at 105 ± 2 °C until a constant mass was obtained. The change in weight (D) after 16–24 h was then used to determine the sample’s PMC using:
- (c)
- Percentage ash content: The percentage ash content (PAC) was determined using standard CEN/TS 14775. Two grams of the briquette was heated in a furnace at 450 °C for 1 h and weighed after cooling to get the weight of the ash (C). The PAC was determined using:
- (d)
- Percentage fixed carbon: The percentage fixed carbon (PFC) was computed by subtracting the sum of PVM, PAC and PMC from 100.Fixed Carbon = 100% − (PVM + PAC + PMC),
2.4.2. Ultimate Analysis of the Raw Sample
2.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis
2.6. Briquetting of Pretreated Sample
2.7. Characterization of Briquette
2.8. Calorific Value
2.9. Durability
2.10. Density
2.11. Determination of Compressive Strength
2.12. Proximate and Thermal Analysis of Briquette
2.12.1. Proximate Analysis of Briquette
2.12.2. Energy Evaluation Analysis
2.12.3. Thermal Fuel Efficiency (TFE) Test
2.12.4. Burning Rate
2.12.5. Ignition Time
2.13. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Ultimate Analysis of Pretreated Waste Sample
3.2. Proximate Analysis
3.2.1. pH of Pretreated Waste Samples
3.2.2. Moisture Content
3.2.3. Volatile Matter
3.2.4. Ash Content
3.2.5. Fixed Carbon
3.2.6. Calorific Value
3.2.7. Compressive Strength
3.2.8. Durability
3.2.9. Bulk Density
3.2.10. Ignition Time
3.2.11. Water Boiling Time
3.2.12. Burning Rate
3.2.13. Thermal Efficiency
3.2.14. Potential Uses of TSW-Derived Briquettes
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Element | HR (mg/kg) | FL (mg/kg) | CS (mg/kg) | BD (mg/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mg | BDL | 6770.00 ± 528.00 | BDL | BDL |
Al | 122.00 ± 9.00 | 15,190.00 ± 198.00 | 2129.00 ± 134.00 | 9612.00 ± 87.00 |
Cl | 2007.00 ± 32.00 | 4118.00 ± 58.00 | 68,580.00 ± 274.00 | 1612.00 ± 34.00 |
Ca | 3055.00 ± 238.00 | 372,300.00 ± 3351.00 | 31,440.00 ± 1321.00 | 650.00 ± 126.00 |
V | BDL | 13.40 ± 1.30 | 60.60 ± 3.40 | 8.70 ± 0.70 |
Mn | 4.70 ± 0.10 | 157.00 ± 1.00 | NA | 5.80 ± 0.10 |
Na | 2413 ± 10 | 5820.00 ± 12.00 | 6562.00 ± 7.00 | 3054.00 ± 9.00 |
Sr | BDL | 383.00 ± 21.00 | NA | BDL |
K | 663 ± 114 | 1259.00 ± 180.00 | BDL | BDL |
La | BDL | 1.50 ± 0.10 | BDL | 7.10 ± 0.20 |
Sm | BDL | 0.16 ± 0.02 | 0.22 ± 0.05 | 0.94 ± 0.04 |
Sc | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.51 ± 0.02 | 0.43 ± 0.02 | 1.15 ± 0.02 |
Cr | 19.9 ± 0.3 | 46.70 ± 0.50 | 4909.00 ± 5.00 | 4441.00 ± 4.00 |
Fe | 387 ± 40 | 4153.00 ± 75.00 | 903.00 ± 57.00 | 836.00 ± 50.00 |
Co | BDL | 0.23 ± 0.02 | 0.08 ± 0.02 | 0.16 ± 0.02 |
Zn | 82 ± 5 | 187.00 ± 6.00 | 33.00 ± 4.00 | 29.00 ± 3.00 |
Br | 1.8 ± 0.2 | 1.10 ± 0.20 | 9.40 ± 0.30 | 0.90 ± 0.10 |
Rb | 6 ± 2 | 6.50 ± 1.50 | BDL | 4.70 ± 1.40 |
Sb | BDL | BDL | 0.03 ±0.01 | BDL |
Ba | BDL | 56.00 ± 13.00 | BDL | BDL |
Eu | BDL | BDL | BDL | 0.21 ± 0.04 |
Yb | BDL | 0.34 ± 0.06 | BDL | BDL |
Th | BDL | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 0.21 ± 0.04 | 0.16 ± 0.03 |
Briquette ID | HR (g) | FL (g) | CS (g) | BD (g) | ST (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 60 |
2 | 15 | 10 | 5 | 10 | 60 |
3 | 5 | 15 | 15 | 5 | 60 |
4 | 15 | 25 | 5 | 5 | 50 |
5 | 20 | 50 | 15 | 15 | 0 |
6 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 60 |
SAMPLES | pH | MC (wt. %) | VM (wt. %) | AC (wt. %) | FC (wt. %) | CV (MJ/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR | 9.57 | 4.98 | 9.70 | 2.78 | 82.54 | 9.08 |
FL | 11.60 | 6.75 | 14.50 | 3.45 | 75.96 | 14.57 |
CS | 4.13 | 5.90 | 10.09 | 2.53 | 81.48 | 10.69 |
BD | 5.37 | 1.02 | 9.41 | 2.35 | 87.22 | 11.78 |
Briquette ID | MC (wt. %) | VM (wt. %) | AC (wt. %) | FC (wt. %) | CV (MJ/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0.68 | 2.17 | 3.06 | 94.09 | 20.14 |
2 | 0.53 | 2.27 | 3.14 | 92.38 | 19.82 |
3 | 0.95 | 2.76 | 3.9 | 93.23 | 18.63 |
4 | 1.08 | 1.84 | 2.93 | 94.13 | 22.14 |
5 | 1.26 | 2.14 | 3.37 | 93.22 | 24.1 |
6 | 0.38 | 1.9 | 3.11 | 94.61 | 21.46 |
Briquette ID | Weight of Briquette (g) | Bulk Density (kg/cm³) | Compressive Strength (kN/cm²) | Durability Test (wt. %) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 72.08 ± 0.07 f | 0.70 ± 0.03 c | 0.22 ± 0.02 d | 99.23 |
2 | 66.01 ± 0.05 a | 0.65 ± 0.01 b | 0.17 ± 0.01 c | 99.77 |
3 | 68.50 ± 0.14 c | 0.67 ± 0.01 b | 0.19 ± 0.01 c | 99.27 |
4 | 69.50 ± 0.31 d | 0.64 ± 0.01 b | 0.12 ± 0.01 b | 98.94 |
5 | 66.74 ± 0.25 b | 0.60 ± 0.02 a | 0.11 ± 0.01 b | 98.12 |
6 | 71.25 ± 0.28 e | 0.71 ± 0.02 c | 0.06 ± 0.01 a | 98.68 |
Waste Composed Briquette | Calorific Value (MJ/kg) | Source |
---|---|---|
Cardboard and Saw dust | 16.94 | [35] |
Rice Husk | 17.04 | [36] |
Rice Straw | 17.98 | [36] |
90%Rice Straw + 10% Rice Husk Ash | 17.01 | [36] |
Groundnut shells and bagasse | 22.5 | [15] |
Waste compost | 22.42 | [37] |
Sugar cane leaves (cow dung binder) | 19.11 | [38] |
Waste Plastic and Coal | 19.27 | [18] |
Buffing Dust of Total Solid Wastes | 20.17 | [39] |
Human Waste | 25.1 | [40] |
Used Tire | 23.02 | [41] |
Industrial Plastic | 18.21 | [41] |
Waste Oil | 14.65 | [41] |
Paper and saw dust | 16.68 | [13] |
Leather and Sludge | 7.68 | [42] |
Elephant grass blended with 50% coal | 18.53 | [43] |
Gmelina Arborea | 18.6 | [43] |
Sample | Weight of Briquette (g) | Volume of Water (I) | Ignition Time (min) | Water Boiling Time (min) | Burning Rate (g/min) | Thermal Efficiency (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 150 | 100 | 15.33 ± 0.71 d | 29.35 ± 0.21 b | 0.13 ± 0.02 a | 21.09 |
2 | 150 | 100 | 15.07 ± 0.38 d | 32.18 ± 0.31 d | 0.12 ± 0.01 a | 20.23 |
3 | 150 | 100 | 17.00 ± 0.26 e | 32.18 ± 0.31 d | 0.16 ± 0.01 b | 20.71 |
4 | 150 | 100 | 12.10 ± 0.46 b | 31.00 ± 0.52 c | 0.18 ± 0.02 b | 20.78 |
5 | 150 | 100 | 13.40 ± 0.75 c | 29.32 ± 0.40 b | 0.17 ± 0.01 b | 23.13 |
6 | 150 | 100 | 9.23 ± 0.45 a | 28.20 ± 0.23 a | 0.13 ± 0.01 a | 26.38 |
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Onukak, I.E.; Mohammed-Dabo, I.A.; Ameh, A.O.; Okoduwa, S.I.R.; Fasanya, O.O. Production and Characterization of Biomass Briquettes from Tannery Solid Waste. Recycling 2017, 2, 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling2040017
Onukak IE, Mohammed-Dabo IA, Ameh AO, Okoduwa SIR, Fasanya OO. Production and Characterization of Biomass Briquettes from Tannery Solid Waste. Recycling. 2017; 2(4):17. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling2040017
Chicago/Turabian StyleOnukak, Imeh E., Ibrahim A. Mohammed-Dabo, Alewo O. Ameh, Stanley I.R. Okoduwa, and Opeoluwa O. Fasanya. 2017. "Production and Characterization of Biomass Briquettes from Tannery Solid Waste" Recycling 2, no. 4: 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling2040017