Value-Added Recycling of Pre-Consumer Textile Waste: Performance Evaluation of Cotton Blend Knitted T-Shirts

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of waste for value addition in form of use of textile waste to comfortable and durable garments based on blending recycled cotton fibers extracted from spinning, weaving, and cutting waste with virgin cotton in different ratios of 70:30, 80:20, and 90:10 to produce yarns of 22/1 count, which are used to develop single jersey knitted T-Shirt, examining key properties such as mechanical and thermos-physiological properties. Grey fabric (unprocessed fabric) with a higher virgin cotton content and from spinning waste exhibited superior bursting strength, overall moisture management capacity, and thermal conductivity. In contrast, air permeability and water vapor permeability were highest in fabric made with weaving waste. After scouring and bleaching, the finished fabric (processed fabric) was compared with the grey fabrics. The results demonstrate that the finished fabric has slightly reduced bursting strength, water vapor permeability, and moisture management capacity while significantly enhancing air permeability and maintaining thermal conductivity. T-shirt properties were evaluated across various blend ratios and waste types over multiple washing cycles. Overall, the study demonstrates that recycled cotton fibers, particularly those from spinning waste, can be successfully produced into high-performance knitted t-shirts, offering a sustainable alternative to fully virgin cotton products without compromising performance significantly.

1. Introduction

In the recent century, climate change has had a significant effect on all of us and has emerged as an international issue of interest. The textile and fashion industries are major contributors to climate change. The textile industry is among the most resource-intensive sectors, consuming vast amounts of water, energy, and raw materials while generating significant volumes of waste. With the rising awareness of environmental issues and the need for sustainable practices, recycling and reusing textile waste have emerged as critical strategies to address these challenges [1,2,3]. Among the various waste streams, pre-consumer waste-comprising remnants from spinning, weaving, and cutting presents a valuable resource for developing eco-friendly textile products. However, the efficient utilization of these waste materials requires a deeper understanding of their properties and performance in blended yarns [4,5]. Recycling cotton fibers from textile waste not only mitigates the environmental burden but also reduces the reliance on virgin cotton, a crop that demands considerable water and pesticide inputs [6,7,8]. Recent advancements in spinning technologies, particularly rotor spinning, have enabled the incorporation of recycled fibers into high-performance yarns. Despite these advancements, the quality of yarns and fabrics produced from recycled fibers remains heavily influenced by the type of waste source, the blend ratio with virgin fibers, and the intended textile application [9,10,11,12].

One common approach in the literature is the utilization of open-end spinning technology to facilitate the spinning process with shorter fibers. Dessalegn et al. [13] analyzed the effect of recycled fibers on yarn and handloom fabrics and found that yarns and fabrics blended with waste fibers are suitable for home furnishing purposes. In another study, Duru et al. [14] investigated the impact of opening roller speed on different percentages of waste fibers and polyester fibers in the open-end spinning process. Their findings suggested that higher roller speeds resulted in improved fabric quality. Halimi MT et al. [15] developed a statistical model for rotor-spun yarn, examining the influence of waste percentage and rotor machine parameters. They concluded that up to 25% of waste fiber could be used without negatively affecting the quality of the rotor yarn. Yilmaz D et al. [16] explored the effects of soft waste on rotor-spun and ring-spun yarn, assessing various quality characteristics of the yarns. Additionally, Vadicherla and Saravanan [17]. reported on the thermal properties of single jersey knitted fabric produced from recycled polyester and cotton. Their research demonstrated that as the waste percentage increased, the thermal resistance of the fabric decreased, while thermal conductivity and air permeability increased. Kumar and Raja [18] studied the comfort properties of the fabrics developed by blending recycled polyester and virgin cotton fibers. They found that blending recycled polyester fiber improved the comfort properties of the socks. Gun et al. [19] developed socks using virgin polyester fibers, elastane, and reclaimed cotton fibers and compared their thermal properties with socks made from virgin cotton fibers. They have found that elastane enhanced the socks’ thermal characteristics but reduced their water vapor permeability. In another study, Gun et al. [20] developed socks from a blend of polyester fibers and reclaimed fibers, evaluating their physical and dimensional properties in comparison to socks composed of virgin cotton fibers. Their findings indicated that incorporating reclaimed fibers enhanced certain physical properties such as thickness, stitch density, and resistance to pilling, although it led to a reduction in air permeability compared to socks made from virgin cotton.

Habib et al. [21] investigated the feasibility of utilizing recycled cotton from textile waste to produce sustainable rotor yarns for denim production. Results indicated that while recycled cotton improves sustainability, it also leads to decreased yarn strength and elongation, and increased irregularities. However, the produced yarns were deemed suitable for commercial denim production. Akhtar et al. [22] focused on converting leno waste into ring-spun yarn and subsequently into knitted fabrics. The aim is to evaluate the feasibility of using recycled fibers in socks production without compromising product quality.

Existing studies have primarily focused on the development of sustainable textiles, such as denim, socks, and shirts, using pre-consumer waste and comparing them with textiles made from virgin fibers. There is limited research on comparing different types of waste to analyze which waste type is more suitable for sustainable textile applications without compromising the garment quality in terms of comfort, durability, and thermos-physiological properties. This study aims to bridge this research gap by investigating the production of rotor-spun yarns using recycled cotton fibers sourced from spinning, weaving, and cutting waste, blended with virgin cotton in various ratios. The resulting yarns are characterized by evaluating their suitability for manufacturing knitted t-shirts, with a focus on balancing sustainability and performance. The methodologies employed in our study are selected based on their proven reliability, accuracy, and relevance in addressing the research problems in the existing literature. Specifically, knitted cotton fabric was chosen due to its robust performance and is acceptable as a product of recycled-based fibres. Our research aimed to investigate the best possible option from the waste of spinning, weaving, and cutting and blended with virgin cotton fibers in three different ratios (70:30, 80:20, and 90:10). Basically, these three wastes are significant waste to reuse as fibre and are examinable for their physical and comfort properties as being used for T-shirts. By examining the properties of yarns and fabrics derived from various waste streams and blend ratios, this work aims to provide insights into the feasibility of integrating recycled cotton fibers into mainstream textile production without compromising quality.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The virgin cotton and recycled cotton from pre consumer waste (spinning, weaving, and cutting waste) provided by a textile manufacturing industry.

2.2. Methods

This section outlines the process of creating a knitted t-shirt, detailing how fibers are first recovered, then blended with virgin cotton and finally transformed into a t-shirt. All relevant details are provided here.

2.2.1. Recovery of Fibers from Waste

Hard waste collected is subjected to shredding to convert it into small pieces. The shredded waste is placed on the feed lattice of the waste opening machine. The waste opening machine consists of a feeding roll that feeds the material to an opening roll, which features spikes similar to those of a shell roller. This roll rotates at a high speed of 600 RPM, opening the form. Waste is collected on the hollow cylinder next in the operation, where the opened fibers are collected in the form of a web.

2.2.2. Ring Spinning of Yarn

Recycled recovered cotton fibers of waste were mixed with virgin cotton fiber in desired ratios and processed through Reiter below room line (B-12, B-76, B-17, A-79R) and finally moved through C-70 Card as shown in Figure 1. The process of below room was done with modified gauges to support the short fibers, and 70 grain-carded sliver was obtained. The carded silver was passed through the doubling process at the RSBD-22 machine to get more evenness. The silver was processed through Zinsser Speed 5M Frame to form the rotor yarn.

2.2.3. Knitting Process

The blended yarn of different ratios was adequately marked and used on the Fukuhara circular knitting machine, which had a 30-inch diameter and a 90-degree positive feed system. The machine is a single-feed, single-cylinder model that contains 24-needle gauges.

2.2.4. Scouring and Bleaching

All the fabrics underwent scouring and bleaching. For scouring, the fabrics were treated with 8 g/L caustic soda, 2 g/L wetting agent, and 3 g/L sequestering agent at a temperature of 95 °C for 60 min. For bleaching, the fabrics were treated with 6 g/L caustic soda, 8 g/L hydrogen peroxide, 2 g/L wetting agent, 3 g/L sequestering agent, and 3 g/L stabilizer at a temperature ranging from 95 °C for 60 min. Subsequently, the fabrics were rinsed and neutralized before dyeing and finishing.

2.2.5. Development of T-Shirts

The process of creating a knitted t-shirt from single jersey fabric involves several key steps. First, pre-shrink the fabric to ensure that it maintains its shape after washing. Next, a medium-sized pattern was designed, and adjustments were made to achieve the desired fit and style. The fabric was then cut according to the pattern and sewn together using appropriate techniques. Finishing touches like hemming and adding labels completed the garment. Quality-control checks were conducted to ensure accuracy and durability. Finally, the t-shirts were characterized using various characterization techniques.

The parameters such as yarn count (22/1 Ne), fabrication (single jersey), and shirt size (medium) were kept constant during the development of T-shirts from pre-consumer waste, while waste type (spinning, weaving, and cutting) and fiber composition virgin to recycled (70:30, 80:20, 90:10) were the variables parameters. Design of Experiment is provided in

Table 1. Design of Experiment.

Serial #	Waste Type	Yarn Count	Composition
1	Spinning	22/1 Ne	70:30
2			80:20
3			90:10
4	Weaving	22/1 Ne	70:30
5			80:20
6			90:10
7	Cutting	22/1 Ne	70:30
8			80:20
9			90:10

.

Three samples of 22 count were developed by yarn of blended virgin cotton with spinning waste cotton with different blend ratios 70:30, 80:20, and 90:10. Three samples of 22 count developed by yarn of blended virgin cotton with weaving waste cotton with different blend ratios 70:30, 80:20, and 90:10, and three samples of 22 count were developed by yarn of blended virgin cotton with cutting waste cotton with different blend ratios 70:30, 80:20, and 90:10.

2.3. Characterization

Fiber length and uniformity of waste fibres were analyzed using the Spinlab Fibrograph 530. Samples were conditioned per ASTM D1776 at 20 °C and 65% relative humidity before testing. The tenacity of the recycled yarns was determined using the Uster Tensorapid-5. Tests were conducted as per ASTM D2256 under controlled conditions of 25 °C and 65% humidity, with a test speed of 1 m/min. Yarn evenness (U%) and imperfections (thin places, thick places, and neps) were evaluated using the Uster Evenness Tester (UT-5). Measurements were conducted at a speed of 400 m/min over 2.5 min, following ASTM D1425, with sensitivity settings of −50%, +50%, and +200% for imperfections. Air permeability of the fabrics was measured using the SDL Atlas air permeability tester M201, following BN ISO 9237. Samples were conditioned as per ISO 139, and a 20 cm² testing head with a constant air pressure of 100 Pa was used. Results were recorded in mm/s. The overall moisture management capability (OMMC) of fabrics was analyzed using the SDL Atlas Moisture Management Tester. Specimens were preconditioned and positioned between top and bottom sensors to evaluate moisture transport behavior based on surface electrical resistivity changes. Bursting strength was measured using the GATS Lab GK03 tester, following ISO-13938-2. Results were recorded in kPa, with distention measured in mm. Thermal conductivity was determined using the Kawabata Evaluation System (KES-FB-7A). Fabric samples (100 × 100 mm) were conditioned to room temperature and humidity before being placed between heated plates, where heat transfer rates were measured. To investigate the effect of washing on the properties of fabric, the T-shirts were subjected to washing cycles following the procedure outlined in ISO 6330:2012, which specifies the methods for determining the domestic laundering performance of textiles. Initially, the T-shirts were washed using a standard washing machine at a temperature of 40 °C, which is commonly used for domestic laundry, and a standard detergent was added in a specified amount (approximately 4 g/L). For each washing cycle, the fabric samples were placed in the washing machine along with enough load (e.g., additional cotton items) to ensure even agitation. The washing machine was set to run for the standard cycle time, which typically lasts 30 min, including the washing, rinsing, and spinning phases. After each wash cycle, the T-shirts were removed, air-dried at room temperature, and conditioned in a controlled environment before measuring their thermal conductivity. For the study, three different washing cycles were tested: 5 cycles, 10 cycles, and 20 cycles. In each case, the T-shirts underwent the specified number of washes according to ISO 6330, and the fabric samples were carefully dried and prepared for analysis after each washing cycle.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Fiber Properties

The fiber properties of recycled cotton from spinning, weaving, and cutting waste in

Table 2. Properties of recycled cotton fibers collected from spinning, weaving, and cutting waste.

S. No	Property	Spinning Waste	Weaving Waste	Cutting Waste
1	Mic Value	4.25	4.84	4.91
2	50% Span length (mm)	9.5	8.73	7.79
3	25%Span length (mm)	19.22	18.11	16.66
4	Uniformity Ratio	52.1	48.2	47.21
5	short Fiber %	18.33	21.52	23.28

reveal important differences in quality, which directly influence their suitability for yarn production.

The Micronaire (Mic) value is lowest in spinning waste indicating finer fibers compared to other two wastes and these fibers are generally more desirable for producing softer and lighter fabrics. In terms of 50% and 25% span length, spinning waste fibers are the longest and this offers the highest quality, superior strength and uniformity in this regard. Conversely, cutting waste, with the shortest fibers, may result in weaker yarns with more imperfections. Spinning waste has highest uniformity ration, which indicates more consistent fiber lengths. Weaving waste and cutting waste have lower ratios, meaning more variability in fiber length, which can negatively impact the uniformity and strength of the resulting yarns. Lastly, the short fiber percentage is lowest in spinning waste improving yarn quality by reducing the occurrence of defects. Weaving waste and cutting waste have higher percentages of short fibers, which can lead to weaker yarns with more neps and other imperfections. All these factors make spinning waste ideal for producing stronger, higher-quality yarns. In contrast, cutting waste exhibits the lowest fiber quality, with coarser, shorter, and less uniform fibers, making it less suitable for high-quality yarn production. Weaving waste falls in between, offering moderate fiber quality for yarn production. These findings underscore the significant impact of the waste source on fiber properties and potential yarn applications.

3.2. Yarn Properties

3.2.1. Single Yarn Strength

The results of single yarn strength obtained from various blend ratios of virgin and recycled cotton fibers (sourced from spinning, weaving, and cutting wastes) highlight several trends that demonstrate how the proportion of recycled fibers affect yarn strength as shown in Figure 1.

For spinning waste, as the proportion of virgin cotton increases, yarn strength tends to improve. In the 70:30 blend ratio, the yarn strength is lower compared to the 80:20 and 90:10 ratios. This pattern is indicating that a higher proportion of virgin cotton leads to stronger yarns, with the 90:10 blend consistently showing the highest strength values. In the case of weaving waste, a similar trend is observed, although the overall yarn strength is generally lower compared to spinning waste. Cutting waste shows the weakest yarn strength values among all types of waste. At the 70:30 blend ratio, the yarn strength is 8.44 cN/tex, which marginally improves to 9.11 cN/tex for the 90:10 blend this indicates that recycled fibers from cutting waste contribute more negatively to yarn strength compared to those from spinning or weaving waste. Overall, the results show that increasing the virgin cotton content improves yarn strength across all waste types, but the extent of improvement varies depending on the source of recycled fibers. Spinning waste shows the best performance in terms of yarn strength, followed by weaving waste, while cutting waste results in the weakest yarns.

3.2.2. Yarn Elongation

The yarn elongation results for various blend ratios of virgin to recycled cotton fibers (sourced from spinning, weaving, and cutting wastes) in Figure 2 reveal important insights into the impact of recycled fiber content on elongation properties. As the proportion of virgin cotton increases, yarn elongation generally improves for spinning waste, rising from 4.54% at a 70:30 blend to 4.91% at a 90:10 blend. In contrast, weaving waste shows a slight decline in elongation with increased virgin cotton, from 4.93% at 70:30 to 4.69% at 80:20 and further decreasing at 90:10. Cutting waste exhibits minimal variation in elongation across blends, with a slight reduction as virgin cotton increase. Overall, spinning waste yields the highest elongation, while weaving and cutting wastes show lower values, with recycled fiber content having a more pronounced effect on elongation in these wastes.

3.3. Fabric Results

This section presents the findings related to the mechanical and thermos-physiological comfort properties of the fabric developed from rotor-spun recycled cotton yarn derived from pre-consumer waste.

3.3.1. Bursting Strength

In Figure 3, the data reveal a clear trend where the bursting strength improves as the proportion of virgin cotton increases.

As the proportion of virgin cotton increases, bursting strength improves for spinning and weaving waste but decreases for cutting waste. In spinning waste, bursting strength rises from 122.53 kPa at a 70:30 blend to 134.63 kPa at 90:10, showing a clear positive trend. Weaving waste follows a similar pattern but with lower values, increasing from 114.43 kPa at 70:30 to 123.97 kPa at 90:10. Conversely, cutting waste shows a decline in bursting strength, dropping from 108.43 kPa at 70:30 to 93.97 kPa at 90:10, likely due to fiber inconsistency. Overall, spinning waste provides the highest bursting strength, weaving waste performs moderately, and cutting waste exhibits the lowest strength, emphasizing the role of fiber quality in yarn durability.

3.3.2. Air Permeability

As the proportion of virgin cotton increases, air permeability improves for all waste types as shown in Figure 4. Spinning waste shows a steady rise from 2307 mm/s at a 70:30 blend to 2502 mm/s at 90:10, indicating better airflow with increased virgin cotton. Weaving waste follows a similar trend but with slightly higher values, increasing from 2707 mm/s to 2901 mm/s. Cutting waste also exhibits improved air permeability with more virgin cotton, reaching 2931 mm/s at a 90:10 blend, though it remains lower than weaving waste. Overall, weaving waste results in the highest air permeability, while spinning waste has the lowest. These findings emphasize the role of fiber quality and blend composition in enhancing breathability in recycled yarns.

3.3.3. Water Vapor Permeability Index

The water vapor permeability index increases with higher virgin cotton content across all waste types as shown in Figure 5. Spinning waste shows improved moisture permeability with more virgin cotton, while weaving waste consistently exhibits the highest permeability due to its more open structure. Cutting waste has permeability values comparable to weaving waste, particularly at higher blend ratios. This suggests that longer, stronger virgin fibers enhance moisture transport. Overall, weaving and cutting waste offer superior water vapor permeability compared to spinning waste, making them ideal for breathable fabrics. These findings highlight the importance of balancing recycled fiber content with performance needs in sustainable textile production.

3.3.4. Overall Moisture Management Capacity

The OMMC value of all the samples provided is shown in Figure 6. The results suggested that by increasing the virgin cotton content, the OMMC value of the fabrics improved. Fabric samples developed from spinning waste have better OMMC characteristics than fabric made up of weaving and cutting waste.

3.3.5. Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity of the fabrics depends upon the yarn count and composition as shown in Figure 7. Thermal conductivity improved by increasing the higher cotton content of virgin cotton. Weaving and cutting waste fabric has lower thermal conductivity than spinning waste fabrics.

3.4. Finished Fabric Results

This section analyzes and compares the mechanical properties (bursting strength and durability) and thermos-physiological comfort properties (air permeability, moisture management, and thermal conductivity) after transforming the grey fabric into the finished fabric by scouring and bleaching to assess the quality of fabric.

3.4.1. Bursting Strength

The comparative analysis of bursting strength of the grey single jersey knitted fabric and finished fabric is provided in Figure 8. The bursting strength of the finished fabric, a slight reduction across all blends. This decrease can be attributed to the removal of natural impurities, waxes, and residual processing agents from the fibers during scouring. These impurities, while undesirable for fabric functionality, initially act as fillers that contribute to fiber cohesion and strength.

3.4.2. Air Permeability

The results of air permeability of the fabrics after scouring and bleaching are compared in Figure 9, which shows that the air permeability of the fabric increased after scouring and bleaching of the fabrics.

3.4.3. Water Vapor Permeability Index

The results of water vapour permeability index of the fabrics after scouring and bleaching are compared in Figure 10, which shows that the water vapour permeability of the fabric slightly decreased after scouring and bleaching of the fabrics.

3.4.4. Overall Moisture Management Capacity

OMMC of the fabrics was marginally decreased by scouring and bleaching as shown in Figure 11 and as mentioned in Figure 12. This is probably because surface imperfections were eliminated, which reduced the surface texture required for effective moisture wicking while simultaneously increasing permeability.

3.4.5. Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity of fabrics shows minimal change after scouring and bleaching, with minor reductions due to increased porosity, which enhances insulation. Fabrics with higher virgin fiber content (90:10) offer slightly better thermal insulation. Spinning waste performs best in mechanical strength and thermal conductivity, making it ideal for durable and heat-retaining applications. Weaving waste exhibits the highest air and water vapor permeability, making it suitable for breathable and moisture-managing fabrics like T-shirts. Cutting waste shows the lowest performance across most parameters, making it less suitable for high-quality knitted t-shirts. The choice of waste type should align with the desired fabric properties for optimal performance and sustainability.

3.5. Effect of Washing on Comfort Properties

This section presents the findings related to the effect of washing on mechanical and thermo-physiological comfort properties of the knitted T-shirt developed from rotor-spun recycled cotton yarn derived from pre-consumer waste.

3.5.1. Bursting Strength

The bursting strength of T-shirts made from virgin cotton and recycled cotton blends consistently decreases with an increasing number of washing cycles across all waste types (spinning, weaving, and cutting) as shown in Figure 13. This reduction is attributed to the mechanical and chemical stress during washing, which weakens the fibers, leading to a loss of yarn integrity and fabric strength. The samples with higher virgin cotton content (90:10 blend) exhibit superior bursting strength compared to those with higher recycled fiber content (e.g., 70:30). This is because virgin cotton fibers are longer, stronger, and less damaged, while recycled fibers are shorter and weaker due to prior processing. Among the different waste types, spinning waste produces the strongest fabrics, followed by weaving and cutting waste. Spinning waste contains higher-quality fibers as it originates from the yarn production stage, whereas cutting waste shows the lowest strength due to already fragmented and degraded fibers. Over 20 washing cycles, the bursting strength declines by approximately 20–30%, highlighting the damaging effects of repeated washing on fiber structure, particularly for recycled cotton blends. Overall, fabrics with higher virgin cotton content and spinning waste origin yarn retain better durability and strength over time.

3.5.2. Air Permeability

The air permeability results of T-shirts made from virgin cotton and recycled cotton blends show a consistent increase with an increasing number of washing cycles, regardless of the waste type (spinning, weaving, or cutting) as shown in Figure 14, Figure 15 and Figure 16. This trend can be attributed to the loosening of yarn and fabric structure during washing, which creates more pores and gaps within the fabric, allowing greater airflow. Fabrics with higher virgin cotton content (90:10) exhibit greater air permeability compared to those with higher recycled cotton content (70:30). Virgin cotton fibers are longer, smoother, and less fragmented, contributing to a more uniform yarn and fabric structure with inherently higher air permeability. In contrast, recycled fibers, being shorter and less uniform, produce denser and less permeable fabrics due to their compact structure.

3.5.3. Water Vapour Permeability

Water vapour permeability in T-shirts is decreased by frequent washing. Because virgin cotton has longer, smoother fibers, it retains superior permeability, especially when used to cut waste-derived materials. Vapour transfer is hampered by the shrinkage and densification of fabrics caused by washing.

3.5.4. Overall Moisture Management Capacity

T-shirt moisture management (OMMC) is decreased by frequent washing, particularly in blends with a lower virgin cotton component. Better OMMC is maintained by a higher percentage of virgin cotton. The decrease is caused in part by fiber deterioration and treatment loss from washing.

3.5.5. Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity results in Figure 17 and Figure 18 demonstrate a consistent trend across all fabric samples, showing an increase in thermal conductivity as the number of washes increases. This trend is observed across various cotton blend ratios (70:30, 80:20, and 90:10). One possible explanation for this increase is that repeated washing alters the fiber structure by shrinking the fibers or removing some finishing agents, which may make the fibers denser and thus enhance thermal conductivity.

4. Conclusions

This study evaluates recycled cotton fibers from spinning, weaving, and cutting waste blended with virgin cotton for sustainable T-shirt production. The findings highlight that waste type and blend ratio significantly influence garment properties, with spinning waste consistently delivering superior quality. Spinning waste has the longest 50% span length (9.5 mm) and the lowest short fiber content (18.33%), making it ideal for high-quality garments. Fabric properties such as air permeability, water vapor permeability, and thermal conductivity are affected by blend ratios, with higher virgin cotton content (90:10) improving moisture management, especially in spinning waste blends. Weaving waste fabrics offer better breathability but lower strength. Spinning waste blends provide optimal thermal insulation, while finishing treatments enhance breathability without compromising durability. Repeated washing affects comfort properties, reducing bursting strength, OMMC, and water vapor permeability while increasing air permeability and thermal conductivity. Fabrics with higher virgin cotton content from spinning waste show superior durability and performance. Overall, the study confirms that recycled cotton fibers can effectively replace virgin cotton in textile applications, balancing sustainability and functionality. A 90:10 virgin-to-recycled blend from spinning waste delivers the best mechanical and thermo-physiological comfort properties, making it the most suitable choice for durable and breathable t-shirts.

Based on the results of this study, it is concluded that spinning waste tends to yield higher-quality fibers primarily due to its relatively cleaner, less degraded, and better-aligned staple fibers, compared to cutting or weaving. These fibers retain more of their original length, uniformity, and strength, as they undergo less mechanical and chemical damage in the production process. Although this study provides insightful information about repurposing cotton waste for yarn production, it is essential to acknowledge several limitations to put the results into perspective. This study makes a direct contribution to improved yarn strength, evenness, and fabric quality. The study focused on waste collected from the spinning, weaving, and cutting operations of cotton-based textile units in Pakistan. These might not adequately capture differences in fiber qualities across various areas, machinery settings, or blended fiber systems, even though they represent typical waste sources in the local industry. Generalization to synthetic or mixed fiber waste should also be attempted, as the findings are mainly applicable to cotton and cotton-rich blends. Furthermore, statistical testing (such as ANOVA and t-tests) to verify the significance of the observed differences is absent from the publication; therefore, statistical analysis should be incorporated into future research.

Recommendations for Future Work: The authors suggest, as future work to improve the application value of lower-quality waste like weaving waste and cutting waste; optimization can be considered at the following stages:

• Waste Segregation and Sorting
• Pre-processing w.r.t. Cleaning and Opening
• Blending Strategy
• Carding and Drawing Process Adjustment
• Chemical Treatments

Further, authors also suggest that the suitable initiative is required from high up to promote the culture of circularity; 1. policy preparations of incentives for circular production models, 2. public-private partnerships, and regulatory frameworks to support sustainable practices. These targeted initiatives and improvements aim to guide industry stakeholders in integrating waste reuse strategies and contributing to long-term sustainable development through a focused discussion on the managerial implications, emphasizing the need for waste segregation systems, quality-control protocols, and investment in recycling infrastructure to enhance the utilization of pre-consumer textile waste.