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Article

Seasonal Uptake and Partitioning of Macro- and Micronutrients in Yellow-Fleshed Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis)

by
Elena Baldi
1,*,
Maurizio Quartieri
1,
Giovambattista Sorrenti
1,
Marco Mastroleo
2,
Evangelos Xylogiannis
3 and
Moreno Toselli
1
1
Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Viale Fanin 46, 40127 Bologna, Italy
2
Zespri Fresh Produce Italy, S.r.l., Via delle Margherite 121, 04011 Aprilia, Italy
3
Rs Fruit Sa, 590 35 Chariessa, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2025, 11(9), 1003; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11091003 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 22 July 2025 / Revised: 21 August 2025 / Accepted: 21 August 2025 / Published: 23 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineral Nutrition of Plants)
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Abstract

Little information is available on the yellow-fleshed Zespri Zesy002 kiwifruit dynamic of mineral nutrient uptake and partitioning within organs. The aim of the present experiment was to find nutrient requirements and supply data for a specific nutrient management plan for Zesy002. The trial was conducted, for three years, in northern Italy, on a six-year-old kiwifruit orchard of the variety Zespri Zesy002. During the experiment organs were periodically sampled and analyzed for macro- and micronutrient concentration. A yearly nutrient uptake of 175 g N plant−1, 16 g P plant−1, 138 g K plant−1, 235 g Ca plant−1, 48 g Mg plant−1, 17 g S plant−1, 247 mg B plant−1, 673 mg Cu plant−1, 5.20 g Fe plant−1, 473 mg Mn plant−1, and 263 mg Zn plant−1 was calculated, confirming that kiwifruit is a high-nutrient-demanding species. The nutrients found in the tree organs were divided in two factions: removed (not returned into the soil) and recycled (returned into the soil during and at the end of the growing cycle). The two fractions were similar for N, P, K, S, and Mn. The fraction recycled of Ca, Mg, Cu, and Zn was higher than the fraction removed, and the reverse was observed for Fe. These data created the basis for the determination of the correct nutritional plans that take into consideration not only nutrient requirements but also the dynamics of uptake during the season.

1. Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the worldwide annual production rate of kiwifruit in 2023 was nearly 4.43 million metric tons on a surface of 286348 ha, with China being the main world producer, followed by New Zealand, Italy, and Greece [1]. Even if green-fleshed kiwifruit is still dominating the global market, yellow-fleshed fruits are gaining a strong reputation in international markets thanks to their novel taste (sweet and juicy). The quality of fruits depends on genetic characteristics, pedoclimatic conditions, and agronomic practices. Consequently, to achieve top quality, fruit farmers can use several agronomic techniques such fertilization, canopy management, leaf and fruit thinning, and trunk and branch girdling [2,3,4]. These crop management practices are used principally to manipulate source–sink relationships and thus enhance fruit dry matter. Mineral nutrients play an important role in many physiological processes and affect dry matter accumulation and water uptake. The relative quantities and timing of nutrient supply affect the distribution of dry matter between vegetative growth and the developing fruit [5]. Moreover, several studies report on the influence of fruit nutrient concentration on quality at harvest and post-harvest [6,7].
The demand of nutrients of recently introduced yellow-fleshed Zespri Zezy002 is not known yet, and consequently, the information to support fertilizer management relies on data collected from more widespread green-flesh kiwifruit varieties. Buwalda and Smith [8] estimated the annual nutrient uptake of 5-year-old, green-flesh ‘Hayward’ trees to be (in kg ha−1) nitrogen (N) 141, phosphorous (P) 19, potassium (K) 169, calcium (Ca) 161, magnesium (Mg) 28, and sulfur (S) 32; this amount includes the fractions partitioned into the root, trunk, canes, new-year shoots, fruit, and leaves. The portion of nutrients fixed in perennial organs and in fruits contributes to the determination of net nutrient removal, while the portion of nutrients in leaves, shoots, and perennial wood, removed by pruning, can be re-utilized by the tree within the orchard lifetime [9].
Also, regarding the knowledge of the kinetics of nutrient uptake, it is important to establish the rate of nutrient application and optimize nutrient efficiency. This is true specifically for N that is present in the soil mainly as nitrate ion (NO3−) and is easily leached out by rain or excessive irrigations. A green-flesh ‘Hayward’ plantation was reported to take up N applied in early spring within the first 10 weeks after application [10]. Among the other macronutrients, Ca and K are considered crucial for fruit quality and storability. Potassium is the most abundant in the cell vacuole of the fruits, and consequently a considerable fraction of the total K absorbed by tree is partitioned to the fruit, i.e., in peach more than 30% [11], in persimmon more than 60% [12], and more than 70% in yellow-flesh kiwifruit [13]. Calcium in fruits is much lower, accounting, for example, in peach for less than 1%. However, this element is considered crucial since it inhibits activity of the enzyme polygalacturonase, an enzyme that can reduce fruit storability [14,15]. To maximize fertilization efficiency, nutrient input should be defined taking into consideration the plant requirements in different phenological stages, considering the production goals and the availability of nutrients in the soil. This means applying the right fertilizer, at the right amount, right time, right place, and in the right formulation, known as ‘The 4Rs of Nutrient Stewardship’ [16].
Most of nutrient management research has been conducted on green (Actinidia chinensis (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang et A. R. Ferguson var. deliciosa ‘Hayward’) and gold kiwifruit (A. chinensis Planch. var. chinensis ‘Hort16A’) [17,18,19], and currently nutrient management plans are based on these reports. However, both cultivars are physiologically different from Zesy002, with Zesy002 and Hort16A breaking winter dormancy earlier than Hayward, which is late-flowering and late-maturing. Considering these physiological differences and nutrient implications, the aim of the study was to establish the dynamic of mineral nutrient uptake and partitioning within yellow-flesh Zespri Zesy002 kiwifruit organs, throughout the different phenological stages, in northern Italian climatic conditions, to bridge the knowledge gap on this cultivar’s nutrient requirements and supply data for a specific nutrient management plan for Zesy002.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material and Orchard Description

The trial was carried out, in 2019, 2021, and 2022, near Brisighella, on a hillside of Ravenna province (44°13′20″ N, 11°46′24″ E, 116 m a.s.l.), in non-calcareous soil (Table 1), on an orchard first planted (in 2006) as a self-rooting Hayward, and later (in 2014) grafted with Zespri Zesy002. The orchard employed varieties M33 and M91 as pollinators.
Kiwifruit vines were spaced 2.5 m along the row and 4.5 m between rows (889 vines ha−1, considering also pollinators that account for 18% of total plants), trained as a doubled ‘pergoletta’ system with 12 canes per vine, 10 buds per cane, and potentially 5 fruits per bud. The orchard was fertilized according to Integrated Crop Management (ICM) guidelines of the Emilia-Romagna region [20]; nutrients were applied weekly from end of April to the beginning of August with fertigation for a total of (kg ha−1 year−1) 114 N, 36 P, 108 K, 67 Ca, 7 Mg, 1 Fe, and 0.5 Mn. Plants were regularly irrigated according to the daily evapotranspiration rate with a single pipeline, with emitters spaced at 0.83 m distance along the line, and an emission rate each of 1.4 mm h−1.
The ground of the vine rows was managed with 0.5 m-high bedding, which was chemically weeded, while the interrow of the orchard floor was grassed with spontaneous species and mowed, on average, three times a year.

2.2. Experimental Design and Sample Collection

In the orchard, 3 plots (replicates) of two rows each were selected for the study; in each replicate, 10 uniform plants were chosen, and for each of the 30 selected plants, the determination of nutrient uptake and partitioning was carried out.
In the first year (2019), at flowering (May 2nd) a sample of flowers was collected, fresh and dry weights were recorded, and a dried sample was then stored for mineral analysis. From the beginning of May until harvest, every two weeks, fruits and leaves were sampled. In detail, at each measurement data point, 20 fully expanded leaves per plot were collected from the mid part of the shoot. Leaf laminae and petioles were separately weighed, leaf area was measured, and then samples were washed, oven dried, and milled. Thinned fruits were collected, fresh and dry weights were measured, and, on a representative sample, mineral analyses were conducted. Fruit diameter, weight, and dry matter were measured on 30 fruits; at each sampling time fruits were washed, and a representative sample of flesh was lyophilized and stored for mineral analysis.
At summer pruning (25 July 2019), the fresh weight of shoots removed was recorded; a representative sample was then collected, washed, dried to constant weight, and milled, and nutrient concentration was measured. At commercial harvest of all years (2019, 2021, and 2022), the number and weight of fruits were recorded in 10 plants per plot to determine the yield per hectare. At the beginning of leaf abscission (2019), all leaves from 9 plants (3 per block) were collected and weighed; a representative sample was washed, oven dried, and milled. In winters of the three years, 1- and 2-year-old shoots, removed with pruning, were weighed; a representative sample was washed, oven dried, milled, and analyzed for mineral concentration. In winter 2022, two plants were harvested, and structural roots, trunk, and the whole skeleton were measured for fresh and dry weight and analyzed for macro- and micro-nutrients. The organ mass was then divided by the number of years (6), to calculate the annual amount of nutrient removed yearly. Root turnover was not considered in the present experiment, and fine roots were not considered since their contribution to total root mass is negligible.

2.3. Mineral Analysis

From each dried organ, a sub sample of 0.3 g was mineralized (US EPA Methods 3052; [21]) in an Ethos TC microwave lab station (Milestone, Bergamo, Italy) with a mixture of 8 mL of HNO3 (65%—Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany) and 2 mL of H2O2 (30%—Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany) and analyzed for macro- (P, K, Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) by plasma spectrometer (ICP-OES; Ametek Spectro, Arcos, Kleve, Germany).
Nitrogen was measured by Kjeldahl [22] by mineralizing 0.5 g dry sample, with 10 mL of H2SO4 (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), at 420 °C, for 180 min, and subsequent distillation was performed with 32% (v/v) NaOH (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany )and titration with 0.05 M H2SO4 (95%—Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany).

2.4. Data Handling

Organ mineral content was calculated by multiplying each mineral concentration by the organ dry weight (DW). In detail, at each sampling date, leaves in each shoot were counted, and the total weight for plants was estimated taking into consideration the 20-leaves-sample dry weight and the total number of leaves. At harvest the total number of fruits was calculated dividing total yield by average fruit weight; the total fruit weight per plant during the season was calculated taking into account the dry weight of the 30-fruit sample and the final number of fruits (eventual fruit drop was considered). The knowledge of annual nutrient content in tree organs allowed us to calculate two fractions of nutrients: recycled and removed. Recycled nutrients were taken up during the growing season and returned to the soil at the end of it, calculated as the sum of the fractions in abscised leaves, thinned fruits, and pruned wood. Removed nutrients were taken up and moved outside the orchard and were calculated as the sum of nutrient contents in root, skeleton, and fruit. Total orchard annual demand is the sum of nutrients removed and remobilized.

3. Results

On a one-year basis, fruits accounted for the highest biomass (7.9 kg DW plant−1), followed by abscised leaves (3.61 kg DW plant−1) and wood from winter pruning (3.27 kg DW plant−1). Yearly growth of the skeleton (trunk + branches) was around 1.07 kg plant−1 while shoots from summer pruning, roots, and thinned fruits showed smaller values than other organs (299 g plant−1, 269 g plant−1, and 123 g plant−1, respectively; Figure 1).
The amount of N removed from the orchard was higher than the fraction recycled (Figure 2); the highest quantity of N was found in harvested fruits (Table 2), followed by abscised leaves and pruned wood, which, unlike fruits, returned back to the ground and were thus recycled (Table 2). A similar trend was also observed for P, K, and S even though with smaller amounts than N (Figure 2; Table 2). Calcium and Mg showed an opposite behavior (Figure 2) with the highest quantities returning back to the soil due to leaf abscission (Table 2).
The recycled fraction of B, Cu, Mn, and Zn was higher than that removed for all organs; abscised leaves accounted for the highest nutrient content, followed by skeleton, fruits at harvest, and winter pruning (Table 3). Iron was mainly accumulated in skeleton and roots (Table 3); thus, its removed fraction was higher than the recycled one (Figure 3).
At the beginning of the season, the accumulations of N (Figure 4a), P (Figure 4b), and K (Figure 4c) were higher in leaves (green areas) than in fruits (yellow area). Then starting at the end of May, after fruit cytokinesis, an increasing portion of these nutrients were partitioned into the fruit, while the accumulation into the leaves leveled off in mid-July (Figure 4 green areas), so that at harvest the amounts of N, P, and K were similar in the two organs (Figure 4a–c). The leaf partitioning of Ca (Figure 4d green areas), Mg (Figure 4e green areas), and S (Figure 4f green areas) increased constantly during the growing season, and, along with the fractions in the fruit (Figure 4d–f yellow areas), consequently the gap between the two organs was maintained through the harvest, with leaves showing a higher amount of Ca, Mg, and S than fruits (Figure 4d–f). Leaf petioles showed a significant amount of K, Ca, and Mg (Figure 4c–e light green) accounting for 10–28 g plant−1 year−1.
The accumulation of micronutrients was higher in leaves than fruits at the beginning of the season; then as also observed for macronutrients, at the end of May fruits started to accumulate more B (Figure 5a, yellow area), Cu (Figure 5b, yellow area), Mn (Figure 5c, yellow area) and Zn (Figure 5e, yellow area) than Fe (Figure 5d, yellow area). The Cu (Figure 5b), Mn (Figure 5d) and Zn (Figure 5e) leaf (green areas) and fruits (yellow areas) partitioning during the growing season showed several peaks followed by a sharp decrease. Iron leaf and fruit concentration (Figure 5c) showed constant increase until mid-September then the accumulation leveled off (Figure 5c). The quantity of micronutrients accumulated in leaf petioles accounted for 10–12 g plant−1 for B, 6–8 mg plant−1 for Cu and Zn, and (20–35 mg plant−1) for Fe and Mn.
The fate of leaf nutrients from summer (23 July) to natural abscission can be evaluated by the comparison of Table 2 (line 4) with Figure 4 (day, 23 July) and Table 3 (line 4) with Figure 5 (day, 23 July). Leaf amount of macronutrients N, P, K, and S and micronutrient Zn decreased from summer to leaf drop in winter. On the other hand, leaf amount of macronutrients Ca and Mg and micronutrients Cu, Fe, and Mn increased from summer to leaf natural drop.

4. Discussion

This investigation showed that half of the biomass produced annually by yellow-flesh Zespri Zesy002 was allocated into the fruits accounting for approximately 7 t of dry weight per hectare, more than twice the dry matter of the leaves. Our data show that the vegetative and productive growths were similar, in accordance with earlier reports on apple [23], persimmon [12], and nectarine [11]. In fact, 1-year old shoots, mostly (90%) removed with pruning (summer and winter) and only present in a smaller part (10%) included in the skeleton (the portion not cut off), annual growth of trunk and branches, along with summer pruning and thinned fruits, accounted for approx. 7.7 t ha−1.
Considering leaf efficiency as a ratio between fruit and leaf DW in the present experiment on gold-flesh kiwifruit, it was 2.27, a value higher than that found in Spain on peach Calanda (1.7), Catherina (1.0), and clingstone Babygold 5 (0.9) [24]. However, leaf efficiency was similar to that found in Italian growing persimmon, varieties Kaki Tipo (2.18) and Rojo Brillate (1,91) [12], and it was lower than that found in nectarine Stark RedGold (2.5; [11]) and apple Mondial Gala (3.8; [22]).
The within-tree mobility of each nutrient can be estimated by the comparison between summer and autumn leaf nutrient content. The decrease of the content of N, P, K, S, and Zn in abscised, compared to summer-sampled, leaves was the result of the translocation of nutrients into other organs, like fruits and storage compartments (branches, trunks, and roots), for the development of new tissues in the following spring. On the other side, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn, and Fe showed an accumulation in leaves during the season. According to these data and in line with the literature [5,11], the extent of re-translocation in kiwifruit was high for N, K, P, and S, whereas it was absent for Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, and Mn. In grape wine, a re-mobilization of all macronutrients was observed with a special emphasis on N that decreased from 426 mg cm−2 to 127 mg cm−2 of leaf; a remobilization of all micronutrients with the exception of Fe was also observed [25]. In persimmon a remobilization of N, P, K, and S was reported [12]. In nectarine Stark RedGold, a large re-translocation of N and Mn and a lower re-translocation of S, Cu, and Zn were observed [11]. In pear, only N was found re-translocated from the leaves to the perennial organs [26]. The increase of the content of some nutrient, observed in this study, can be explained by the excess of rate of application during the vegetative season, with the necessity of the tree removing excesses of the element through leaf abscission. In the case of Ca and Fe, the excess could result from high water Ca content and Fe-fertilization; in the case of Cu and Mn, it may be the result of an excess of the use of Cu- and Mn-based fungicides.
The information on nutrient mobility during the season is crucial for the determination of plant requirements and the establishment of application rates and timing in order to match the kinetics of nutrient absorption, considering that nutrient efficiency increases after flowering until summer and possibly post-harvest. According to the trend of accumulation measured in the present experiment, we observed that at the beginning of the season the main sinks for N, P, and K were the leaves while fruit accumulation started in mid-May, 15 days after bloom; it increased by mid-June and became highest by end of June. On the other side, Ca, Mg, and S were mainly accumulated in leaves while fruit partitioning started after mid-June and was higher for S than Ca and Mg. Thus, in kiwifruit, N is required early after bloom to quickly establish the canopy (photosynthetic apparatus) when its deficiency can have detrimental effect on vegetative growth, with photosynthetic rates thus reducing carbon acquisition and dry matter accumulation [27]. On the other hand, K is widely recognized as the nutrient responsible for fruit quality [28,29], and it should be applied, according to our accumulation trends, 30 days later than N.
As also evidenced by Quartieri and co-authors [13] the amount of Ca2+ removed yearly by fruits was limited compared to leaves; however, Ca plays a fundamental role in maintaining fruit quality [30,31,32]. According to Montanaro et al. [33] maximum Ca2+ accumulation in kiwifruit occurs approximately 55 days after full bloom while during the rest of the growing season, Ca2+ enters the fruit at a low rate, with the last 6 weeks of fruit growth resulting in a minimal gain in Ca2+ [33]. Recent evidence [25], however, reports a constant Ca accumulation in the fruits until harvest. This information lays the basis for a different approach to management strategies, giving the opportunity, in the case of Ca-deficiency, to extend the period useful for the accumulation of Ca into the fruit later than what is reported in the literature. This issue is indirectly confirmed by the effectiveness of Ca fertilizations in some environments (such as non-calcareous soils) late in the season [15], and even in pre-harvest [34], and by the absence of effects of the same treatments in lime, Ca-enriched soil. Phosphorus, as well as Mg, S, and micronutrients, can be supplied starting from fruit set until harvest, and, for those that have high mobility (S and P) a post-harvest supply could also be applied to enhance reserve construction.
The large amounts of nutrients recycled in the orchard as a consequence of leaf abscission can contribute to improving soil fertility since, after organic matter decomposition, nutrients are released and become available for root uptake [35]. On two kiwifruit varieties, Hongyang and Jinyan, it was observed that after 180 days of decomposition, kiwifruit litter released more than 75% of the initial contents of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg [36]. The trend of nutrient release is strictly linked to pedoclimatic conditions; in a long-time experiment conducted on peach orchard with environmental conditions similar to those of the current investigation, it was observed that peach litter released N and S starting from the second year and continued in the third year, when most (80%) of the original amounts were mineralized. Potassium release occurred rapidly, and approximately 70–80% of the K from abscised leaves was available in the soil in the following spring. Phosphorous was mineralized mainly in winter of the first two years; Mg was mainly released in the first 18 weeks, while Ca was gradually released, and its residual content decreased linearly with time [37]. Considering that the carbon contents of peach [37] and kiwifruit [36] are similar, we can hypothesize that in our pedoclimatic condition most of macronutrients are released through mineralization by the end of the second year after abscission as described for peach. Considering that leaves with different ages coexist in the same soil, in our environmental conditions, we can estimate each year around 60% of litter mineralization with an approximate release of 20 kg N ha−1, 4.5 kg P ha−1, 16 kg K ha−1, 100 kg Ca ha−1, 10 kg Mg ha−1, and 2 kg S ha−1. These values are much lower than those estimated for the two varieties of kiwifruit Hongyang and Jinyan in China [36] that were, for N, P, and K, 107, 22, and 89 kg ha−1, respectively. These differences could be mainly due to environmental conditions and different nutrient concentrations in the starting litter that were for N 1.11% and 2.2%, in Italy and China, respectively; for P 0.09% (Italy) and 0.375% (China); and for K 0.40% (Italy) and 1.7% (China). It is well known that the highest N content induces a higher N mineralization rate [38] since litters containing a high amount of N are easily decomposable by soil microbes [39]; the same is true for P [38]. Therefore, litter nutrient content could be responsible for the difference in the decomposition parameters among experiments and therefore differences in nutrient release.
Along with senescent leaves, pruned wood also contributes to the return of nutrients to the soil; however, due to its high C/N ratio its decomposition is slower [40,41] with a release of nutrients that is almost negligible.
Fruits are the organs that accumulate the highest quantities of macronutrient that, on a hectare basis, are (in kg ha−1) 74 N, 8 P, 72 K, 7 Ca, 4 Mg, and 6 S for a total yield of around 40 t ha−1. In New Zealand [42] fruits of Hort 16 A accounted for (in kg ha−1) 48 N, 9 P, 97 K, 7 Ca, 4 Mg, and 8 S for a yield of 33 t ha−1, while Hayward vines produced 26 t ha−1 and partitioned to fruits 35 N, 7 P, 68 K, 5 Ca, 3 Mg, and 7 S. If we calculate the removal for tons of fruits produced, it comes out that G3 needs around 1.85 kg N for each ton of fruit produced, which is higher than Hort 16A (1.45) and Hayward (1.35). On the other hand, Hort 16A accumulates more K (2.94 kg t−1 fruits) than Hayward (2.62 kg t−1 fruits) and Zesy002 (1.79 kg t−1 fruits). Phosphorous and Ca are quite similar among Hort 16A (273 g P t−1 fruits and 212 g Ca t−1 fruits) and Hayward (205 g P t−1 fruits and 192 g Ca t−1 fruits) and higher than Zesy002 (190 g P t−1 fruits and 178 g Ca t−1 fruits). Zezy002 also accounted for lower need of Mg (in g t−1 fruits), which was 95, 121, and 103 for Zesy002, Hort 16A, and Hayward, respectively. Sulfur was mostly accumulated in fruits of Hayward (269 g t−1 fruits) followed by Hort 16A (242 g t−1 fruits) and Zesy002 (149 g t−1 fruits). In general, with the exclusion of N, it seems that G3 has lower accumulation in fruits than other cultivars; however, it should be taken into consideration that the experiments were performed in different places (Italy and New Zealand), and thus the differences could be due not only to the cultivar, but also to the agronomic management and pedoclimatic conditions.
Nutrient yearly uptake can be calculated as the sum of nutrients allocated in organs, that, in our study, were quantified in 175 g N plant−1, 16 g P plant−1, 138 g K plant−1, 235 g Ca plant−1, 48 g Mg plant−1, 17 g S plant−1, 247 mg Cu plant−1, 5.20 g Fe plant−1, 474 mg Mn plant−1, and 263 mg Zn plant−1. These values are related to an average yield of 40 t ha−1. According to the results of the present experiment, it seems that Zesy002 has different nutritional requirements than Hayward with higher N request and lower P [8,43]. Calcium needs are higher than those reported by Buwalda [8] and lower than Sale [43] while Mg is similar to Sale [43] and higher than Buwalda [8]. However, pedoclimatic conditions, agronomic management, and yield are strong variables that could deeply influence nutrient removal and consequently modify plant needs.
In our experimental conditions, kiwifruits showed a high annual request of macro- and micronutrients; almost half of them were recycled and returned back to the orchard. Among the macronutrients, the portion of N that was taken up by the vines and then littered onto the soil (recycled) was about 45% of the total; this fraction of N will be available for root uptake upon mineralization of the organic matter, contributing to the tree nutrition in the following seasons. The percentages of P (40%), K (35%), and S (51%) were similar to N, while the percentages of Ca (91%) and Mg (85%) were double, meaning that most of the Ca and Mg were in the leaves and returned to the soil after leaves abscission.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.T., M.M. and E.X.; methodology, M.Q.; validation, E.B., M.T. and M.M.; formal analysis, M.Q., G.S. and E.B.; investigation, M.Q., G.S. and E.B.; resources, M.M. and E.X.; data curation, M.Q. and E.B.; writing—original draft preparation, E.B.; writing—review and editing, E.B., M.T. and M.Q.; visualization, M.M.; supervision, M.T.; funding acquisition, M.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Zespri Fresh Produce Italy, S.r.l.

Data Availability Statement

Data are unavailable due to privacy restrictions of the company that supported the experiment (Zespri Fresh Produce Italy, S.r.l.).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the farmers Andrea Dalle Fabbriche, via San Ruffillo, 17, and Brisighella (RA) and Fiorenzo Rivalta, Via Canale Vecchio,11 Solarolo (RA), Italy.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Marco Mastroleo was employed by the company Zespri Fresh Produce Italy S.r.l. Author Evangelos Xylogiannis was employed by the company Rs Fruit Sa. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Horticulturae 11 01003 g001
Figure 1. Yearly accumulation of biomass DW in different vines’ organs of Zespri Zesy002.
Figure 1. Yearly accumulation of biomass DW in different vines’ organs of Zespri Zesy002.
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Figure 2. Annual amount of macronutrients recycled and removed in a kiwifruit orchard of Zespri Zesy002.
Figure 2. Annual amount of macronutrients recycled and removed in a kiwifruit orchard of Zespri Zesy002.
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Figure 3. Annual amount of micronutrients recycled and removed in a kiwifruit orchard of Zespri Zesy002.
Figure 3. Annual amount of micronutrients recycled and removed in a kiwifruit orchard of Zespri Zesy002.
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Figure 4. Trend of accumulation of nitrogen (a), phosphorous (b), potassium (c), calcium (d), magnesium (e), and sulfur (f) in leaves, fruits, and petioles during 2022 vegetative season of Zespri Zesy002. The value of ‘fruit’ on 2 May refers to nutrient concentration in flowers.
Figure 4. Trend of accumulation of nitrogen (a), phosphorous (b), potassium (c), calcium (d), magnesium (e), and sulfur (f) in leaves, fruits, and petioles during 2022 vegetative season of Zespri Zesy002. The value of ‘fruit’ on 2 May refers to nutrient concentration in flowers.
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Figure 5. Trend of accumulation of boron (a), copper (b), iron (c), manganese (d), and zinc (e) in leaves, fruits, and petioles during 2022 vegetative season of Zespri Zesy002. The value of ‘fruit’ on May 2nd refers to nutrient concentration in flowers.
Figure 5. Trend of accumulation of boron (a), copper (b), iron (c), manganese (d), and zinc (e) in leaves, fruits, and petioles during 2022 vegetative season of Zespri Zesy002. The value of ‘fruit’ on May 2nd refers to nutrient concentration in flowers.
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Table 1. Physical and chemical soil properties at the beginning of the trial.
Table 1. Physical and chemical soil properties at the beginning of the trial.
Soil ParametersUnitValue
Sandg 100 g−142
Silt g 100 g−130
Clayg 100 g−128
pH-7.3
Ca carbonateg 100 g−1traces
Organic matterg 100 g−11.83
Total Ng 100 g−10.114
CEC 1meq 100 g−120.3
Exchangeable Kmg kg−1219
Exchangeable Ca mg kg−12900
Exchangeable Mgmg kg−1560
Exchangeable Namg kg−1138
Available Pmg kg−126.0
Available Femg kg−136.2
Available Mnmg kg−144.8
Available Cumg kg−114.4
Available Znmg kg−14.00
Soluble Bmg kg−10.120
EC 2mS cm−10.296
1 CEC = cation exchange capacity. 2 EC = electrical conductivity.
Table 2. Annual amount of macronutrients (g plant−1) accumulated in vine organs of Zespri Zesy002.
Table 2. Annual amount of macronutrients (g plant−1) accumulated in vine organs of Zespri Zesy002.
ORGANNPKCaMgS
Thinned fruits1.67 ± 0.07 10.201 ± 0.0231.41 ± 0.1600.327 ± 0.0260.094 ± 0.0100.134 ± 0.017
Fruits83.0 ± 6.588.52 ± 1.3680.6 ± 3.647.99 ± 0.7804.28 ± 0.3386.71 ± 0.242
Summer pruning5.20 ± 0.8590.516 ± 0.0944.24 ± 0.6656.06 ± 0.8860.898 ± 0.1480.353 ± 0.103
Abscised leaves37.2 ± 1.132.57 ± 0.18129.8 ± 3.25187 ± 4.0234.2 ± 4.715.05 ± 0.845
Winter pruning34.0 ± 3.413.13 ± 0.31016.4 ± 1.2819.8 ± 1.135.71 ± 0.3152.68 ± 0.159
Skeleton 7.80 ± 0.1090.759 ± 0.0023.97 ± 0.1809.71 ± 0.1552.29 ± 0.3930.815 ± 0.014
Root 6.62 ± 2.530.344 ± 0.1101.40 ± 0.5144.07 ± 1.110.680 ± 0.1900.646 ± 0.181
TOTAL175161382354817
1 Values are mean ± SE of 3 replicates for thinned fruits, abscised leaves and shoots from summer pruning; 17 for wood from winter pruning, 11 for fruits at harvest, and 2 for skeleton and roots.
Table 3. Annual amount of micronutrients (mg plant−1) accumulated in vine organs of Zespri Zesy002.
Table 3. Annual amount of micronutrients (mg plant−1) accumulated in vine organs of Zespri Zesy002.
ORGANBCuFeMnZn
Thinned fruits2.02 ± 0.167 11.70 ± 0.2612.07 ± 0.2220.503 ± 0.0971.21 ± 0.100
Fruits73.5 ± 9.2174.7 ± 7.2099.4 ± 8.8815.9 ± 2.4125.6 ± 6.47
Summer pruning12.1 ± 2.074.57 ± 0.57413.6 ± 2.669.45 ± 1.766.67 ± 1.06
Abscised leaves119 ± 17.6346 ± 83.6236 ± 10.8234 ± 42.062.6 ± 1.46
Winter pruning26.8 ± 2.83182 ± 17.480.3 ± 5.5135.5 ± 3.76116 ± 7.74
Skeleton 11.1 ± 0.14359.5 ± 13.64445 ± 1464170 ± 72.348.6 ± 7.27
Root 2.61 ± 0.5084.79 ± 1.65313 ± 1578.12 ± 4.412.60 ± 1.00
TOTAL2476735189473263
1 Values are mean ± SE of 3 replicates for thinned fruits, abscised leaves and shoots from summer pruning; 17 for wood from winter pruning, 11 for fruits at harvest, and 2 for skeleton and roots.
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Baldi, E.; Quartieri, M.; Sorrenti, G.; Mastroleo, M.; Xylogiannis, E.; Toselli, M. Seasonal Uptake and Partitioning of Macro- and Micronutrients in Yellow-Fleshed Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis). Horticulturae 2025, 11, 1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11091003

AMA Style

Baldi E, Quartieri M, Sorrenti G, Mastroleo M, Xylogiannis E, Toselli M. Seasonal Uptake and Partitioning of Macro- and Micronutrients in Yellow-Fleshed Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis). Horticulturae. 2025; 11(9):1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11091003

Chicago/Turabian Style

Baldi, Elena, Maurizio Quartieri, Giovambattista Sorrenti, Marco Mastroleo, Evangelos Xylogiannis, and Moreno Toselli. 2025. "Seasonal Uptake and Partitioning of Macro- and Micronutrients in Yellow-Fleshed Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis)" Horticulturae 11, no. 9: 1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11091003

APA Style

Baldi, E., Quartieri, M., Sorrenti, G., Mastroleo, M., Xylogiannis, E., & Toselli, M. (2025). Seasonal Uptake and Partitioning of Macro- and Micronutrients in Yellow-Fleshed Kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis). Horticulturae, 11(9), 1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11091003

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