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Article

Optimizing Caraway Growth, Yield and Phytochemical Quality Under Drip Irrigation: Synergistic Effects of Organic Manure and Foliar Application with Vitamins B1 and E and Active Yeast

by
Ahmed A. Hassan
1,
Amir F.A. Abdel-Rahim
2,
Ghadah H. Al Hawas
3,4,
Wadha Kh. Alshammari
5,
Reda M.Y. Zewail
6,*,
Ali A. Badawy
7,* and
Heba S. El-Desouky
6
1
Horticulture Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Minia University, Minia 61519, Egypt
2
Agricultural Research and Experiments Center, Minia University, Minia 61519, Egypt
3
Department of Biology, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
4
Basic and Applied Scientific Research Center, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
5
Biology Department, College of Science, University of Hafr Al Batin, Hafr Al-Batin 31991, Saudi Arabia
6
Botany Department, Faculty of Agriculture (Moshtohor), Benha University, Toukh 13736, Egypt
7
Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2025, 11(8), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080977
Submission received: 19 July 2025 / Revised: 14 August 2025 / Accepted: 15 August 2025 / Published: 18 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Cultivation of Horticultural Crops)
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Abstract

Despite its value as a culinary, medicinal, and essential oil crop, caraway struggles to grow and develop its biochemical quality in drought-prone sandy soils. To tackle this challenge, we conducted two field trials under drip irrigation, testing four rates of organic manure (0, 5, 10, and 15 ton/hectare (ha) and three foliar biostimulants: vitamin B1 (50 and 100 mg L−1), vitamin E (50 and 100 mg L−1), and active yeast (100 and 150 mL L−1). We used a randomized split-plot design with three replicates, assigning manure rates to main plots and biostimulants to subplots. We measured plant height, stem diameter, branch number, dry biomass, umbels per plant, 1000-seed weight, seed yield (per plant and per ha), essential oil content, chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, and leaf N, P, and K. All treatments outperformed the unfertilized control. Applying 15 ton/ha of manure alone increased mean plant height by 185.3 cm, stem diameter by 2.93 mm, branch number by 14.5, and herbal weight by 91.97 g across both seasons—a gain of about 11–15%. Foliar application of vitamin B1 at 100 mg L−1 (without manure) achieved even larger gains: mean plant height improved by 176.5 cm, stem diameter by 2.6 mm, branches number by 15.1, and herbal biomass by 103.95 g (20–36% growth increases). It also boosted essential oil yield by 1.89 mL per plant (16–50%) and enhanced nutrient uptake. The most pronounced synergy emerged when combining 15 ton/ha of manure with 100 mg L−1 vitamin B1, raising seed yield to 1698.8 kg/ha (35%), plant height to 184.7 cm (52%), number of branches to 17.4 per plant (56%), umbels to 38.1 per plant (42%), 1000-seed weight to 16.9 g (48%), and essential oil yield to 2.3 mL per plant (115%), compared to the control. Chlorophyll a increased by 50%, chlorophyll b by 33%, carotenoids by 35%, and leaf N, P, and K by 43%, 90%, and 76%, respectively. Manure combined with vitamin E or yeast delivered moderate improvements. These findings demonstrate that integrating organic manure with targeted foliar biostimulants—especially vitamin B1—under drip irrigation, is a sustainable strategy to maximize caraway yield, oil content, and nutritional quality on marginal sandy soils.

1. Introduction

The caraway plant (Carum carvi L.) is an aromatic plant belonging to the Apiaceae family [1]. Caraway seeds and their essential oil are used medicinally as carminatives, mild stomachics, antispasmodics, and as a tonic in the treatment of digestive disorders. Dried seeds are widely employed for flavoring bread, cake, confectionery, cheese, and various kinds of food products. The odor and flavor of medicinal seed plants are due to their essential oil [2]. Also, the leaves of caraway are edible and are used in salads and as a garnish or to add flavor [3].
Agriculture in reclaimed lands is critical to global food security and can be achieved through engineering interventions and soil amendments. However, agriculture in these areas faces significant distinct challenges with poor soil health due to poor soil structure, low organic matter content (<0.5%), and a lack of beneficial microorganisms, leading to reduced soil fertility and water retention [4,5], as well as nutrient imbalances, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), and nutrient deficiencies [6,7]. To address these problems, key agricultural strategies include soil reclamation with compost (10–20 t/ha) to rebuild organic carbon [8] and the application of water management techniques such as drip irrigation, which has been shown to reduce salinity accumulation by 30% compared to flood irrigation methods [9].
To enhance caraway growth and maximize essential oil production sustainably, researchers have examined the role of organic fertilizers and biostimulants. Organic manure, in particular, enriches soil humus over time and upgrades both its physical and chemical characteristics. Moreover, incorporating organic matter improves soil structure, increases nutrient availability, and stimulates microbial activity—making it central to sustainable agricultural practices [10,11,12]. Regular fertilization not only maintains soil fertility and meets plant nutritional needs but also reduces environmental stress. Furthermore, organic fertilizers help reduce chemical residues, a growing concern in export markets. Studies have shown that fertilizers are essential for restoring reclaimed sandy soils and improving seed and essential oil production from aromatic plants [13,14].
Thiamine (vitamin B1) plays a role in improving plant metabolism. It is synthesized in plant leaves and can be transported to the plant, where it forms the growth-enhancing enzyme thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). As TPP, thiamine catalyzes a crucial step in carbohydrate metabolism and supports photosynthesis and respiration [15]. It also contains aromatic content, adding to the value of medicinal and ornamental plants [16]. It also enhances plants’ ability to tolerate stresses, such as drought and salinity, by regulating their defense against oxidation, eliminating free radicals, and increasing sweating capacity. This enzyme helps plants grow under adverse conditions [17].
In addition, alpha-tocopherol (Vit. E), the major form of vitamin E in plants, is a low-molecular-weight, lipophilic antioxidant produced exclusively by photosynthetic organisms. It is found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts, where it quenches singlet oxygen and removes lipid peroxide radicals, preventing chain reactions that could damage polyunsaturated fatty acids [18]. In this way, it maintains the fluidity and permeability of membranes, protects photosynthetic proteins from photodamage, and maintains an optimal environment for photosynthesis. In response to drought, salinity, cold, or extreme light stress, plants increase their alpha-tocopherol content, a response that has been associated with stronger growth, increased yield, and enhanced antioxidant defenses [19].
Yeast is a fast-growing unicellular fungus and an excellent environmentally friendly promoter of plant growth and alternative to chemical fertilizers. It contains readily available macronutrients and micronutrients, essential nutrients (including vitamins B1, B2, B3, and B12, as well as amino acids, proteins, and carbohydrates), and plant hormones (auxins and cytokinins), which significantly enhance plant production [20]. These elements promote cell division and enlargement, chlorophyll formation, protein and nucleic acid synthesis, carbohydrate accumulation, and growth, ultimately leading to increased yield and seeding [21]. Furthermore, yeast also resists biotic and abiotic stresses, such as drought, by inhibiting pathogens, solubilizing phosphates, producing protective compounds, and reducing stress-induced damage [22]. The beneficial properties of yeast make it a valuable and safe tool for agriculture.
This study aimed to evaluate the synergistic effects of organic manure, foliar treatment with vitamins (B1 and E), and yeast on caraway plants grown under drip irrigation in a poor sandy soil (arid area). The objective was to improve vegetative growth, seed yield, essential oil production, and phytochemical quality (photopigments, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content) of caraway plants while ensuring the sustainability of the cultivation system.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Design

This study was conducted over two consecutive growing seasons (2023/2024 and 2024/2025) at the Agricultural Researches and Experiments Center, Minia University, Shosha, West Samalout City, Egypt (28.3140° N, 30.7101° E, as observed in Figure 1). A split-plot design within a randomized complete block framework with three replicates was employed. Four rates of organic manure (0, 5, 10, and 15 ton/ha) served as the main-plot factor (A), while foliar treatments of vitamin E (50 and 100 mg L−1), vitamin B1 (50 and 100 mg L−1), and active yeast (100 and 150 mL L−1) comprised the subplot factor (B), resulting in 28 treatment combinations. Soil analyses were performed according to Jackson [23], and the results are presented in Table 1. Based on the physical properties in Table 1, the soil is classified as sandy with low macro- and micronutrient levels, indicating poor fertility. The pH is alkaline, electrical conductivity measures 1.30 dS/m, and the CaCO3 content is 13.96%. Overall, this is a sandy, low-fertility soil [24].
The experimental field was laid out in terraces 70 cm wide and spaced 30 cm apart, each fitted with two drip irrigation lines 40 cm apart. Caraway seeds were sown on 15 October in both seasons at 3–4 seeds per hill, with hills spaced 25 cm along the drip lines (drippers spaced 25 cm apart, 4 l/h discharge). Each 4 m × 1 m unit (4 m2 = 1/2625 ha) contained two irrigation lines and 32 plants (84,000 plants/ha). At 40 days after sowing (24 November), seedlings were thinned to one plant per hill. Metrological data for the experimental area is shown in Table 2. All agronomic practices—planting density, sowing timing, irrigation, and pest, disease, and weed management—followed the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture’s recommendations for caraway cultivation.

2.2. Applied Treatments

Organic manure was obtained from a private farm. The organic manure, which is a mixture of cow, sheep, and goat manure, was applied at 0, 5, 10, and 15 ton/ha during the preparation of the soil for cultivation in both seasons. The chemical analysis of organic manure was performed according to Black [25] and is shown in Table 3.
Thiamine (Vit. B1) and α-tocopherol (Vit. E) were obtained from the Algomhoria company for chemical trading in Egypt and applied by hand sprayer three times. The first dose was added 45 days after sowing (30 November), while the second and third ones were applied at three-weeks intervals from the first dose (21 December and 12 January) during both seasons.
Commercial soft yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) were cultivated in a nutrient-rich aerobic medium of glucose and casein, which not only supported vigorous growth but also promoted the formation of valuable bio-constituents: proteins, sugars, carbohydrates, fatty acids, hormones, and amino acids. After harvesting, we disrupted the cells using two freeze–thaw cycles, combined with air sparing and precise temperature shifts during incubation, to efficiently release their soluble contents. The glucose–casein medium ensured an optimal balance of carbon, nitrogen, and other essential nutrients throughout this process. The resulting active yeast suspension was then applied as a foliar spray at 100 and 150 mL L−1. Each rate was sprayed three times, following the vitamin-application schedule, until the foliage was uniformly coated and runoff began.

2.3. Vegetative and Yield Measurements

Vegetative growth was assessed mid-season on 20 February of each year. For each treatment, nine plants per replicate (three replicates) were randomly selected—27 plants per season—to measure plant height (cm), stem diameter (cm), number of branches per plant, and dry herb weight per plant (g).
Final yield and its components were recorded at 180 days after sowing (last week of April). Ten plants per replicate (30 plants per treatment) were randomly harvested to determine the number of umbels per plant, 1000-seed weight (g), seed yield per plant (g), and seed yield per ha (kg).

2.4. Chemical Analysis

Essential oil content was measured by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) at the Laboratory of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, National Research Centre. A TRACE GC Ultra gas chromatograph (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) was coupled to an ISQ single-quadrupole mass spectrometer. Oil yield was calculated per plant (ml) and per ha (L) according to Pharmacopoeia methods [26]. Three weeks after the final treatment (2 February), photosynthetic pigments were quantified following Moran [27]. Nutrient content (N, P, K) was determined in the dried herb using the standard analytical procedures of Sparks et al. [28] and Ibrahim et al. [29].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The results were tabulated and statistically analyzed using MSTAT-C following Freed et al. [30]. Treatment means were compared by the least significant difference (LSD) test at the 5% level and Duncan letters. Data are presented as a mean of three replicates ± standard deviation.

3. Results

3.1. Vegetative Growth

The data presented in Table 4 and Table 5 show the individual and interactive effects of organic manure (5, 10, and 15 ton/ha), vitamin E (50 and 100 mg L−1), vitamin B1 (50 and 100 mg L−1), and active yeast (100 and 150 mL L−1) treatments on some vegetative growth traits (plant height, stem diameter, number of branches/plant, and herb dry weight/plant) of caraway plants over two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
In both seasons, each amendment—organic manure, vitamins, and active yeast—resulted in consistent increases in caraway plant height and stem diameter compared to the untreated control (Table 1). In the first season, applying only 15 ton/ha of manure increased plant height from 146.5 cm to 174.4 cm (+19.0%), and stem diameter from 2.17 cm to 2.46 cm (+13.4%); the second season showed very similar increases. Foliar spraying with 100 mg L−1 vitamin B1 alone (without manure) increased plant height by about 14% and diameter by about 11%, while 100 mg L−1 vitamin E achieved moderate improvements (12–17% height increase and 9–14% diameter increase). Application of 15 g/L of active yeast increased plant height by 13% and stem diameter by approximately 8%. The most significant synergistic effect came from the combination of 100 mg L−1 of vitamin B1 and 15 ton/ha of manure: height increased to 198.1 cm (+35.1%) and stem diameter to 2.70 cm (+24.4%) in the first season (the same increase was also observed in the second season).
In the 2023/24 and 2024/25 seasons (Table 2), each improvement measure increased the number of branches per plant and the dry weight of herb per plant (g), compared to the untreated control group (11.4 branches and 71.1 g dry weight per plant). Applying 15 ton/ha of manure alone increased the number of branches by approximately 15% and the dry weight by 15%. Applying 100 mg L−1 of vitamin E (without manure) increased branch number by about 11% and dry weight by about 19%, while applying 100 mg L−1 of vitamin B1 alone increased branch number by about 20% and dry weight of herb by about 36%. The increase was lower with 150 mL L−1 of active yeast (about a 5% increase in branch number and about an 11% increase in dry weight of herb). The strongest synergistic effect was achieved when combining vitamin B1 (100 mg L−1) with 15 ton/ha of manure—branch number increased by about 52% (from 11.4–11.6 g to about 17.3–17.6 g), and dry weight by about 52% (from 71–72 g to about 108–110 g), for both seasons.

3.2. Yield and Yield Components

The data presented in Table 6 and Figure 2 and Figure 3 (A and B) show the individual and interactive effects of organic manure (5, 10, and 15 ton/ha), vitamin E (50 and 100 mg L−1), vitamin B1 (50 and 100 mg L−1), and active yeast (100 and 150 mL L−1) treatments on the number of umbels/plant, weight of 1000 seeds, and seed yield/plant and/ha of caraway plants over two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
As shown in Table 6, in both growing seasons, different inputs such as organic manure, vitamins, and active yeast resulted in better growth performance of caraway plants compared to the untreated control group. With only 15 ton/ha of manure applied, the number of umbels per plant increased by about 13% in the first season (27.35 vs. 24.13) and by 22% in the second season (30.04 vs. 24.64), and the weight of 1000 seeds increased by about 17% in both growing seasons (13.49 vs. 13.13 g). Spraying 100 mg L−1 of vitamin E (without manure) increased the number of umbels by about 24–26% and the seed weight by about 14%, while treatment with 150 mL L−1 of active yeast increased the number of umbels by about 24% and the seed weight by about 13%, compared to the control group. With 100 mg L−1 vitamin B1 applied to the leaves alone, the number of umbels increased by about 33% and the seed weight by about 17%. The most significant effect was the combination of 100 mg L−1 of vitamin B1 with 15 ton/ha. of manure. The increase in umbels was more than 56% (37.67 vs. 24.13 in the first season; 38.45 vs. 24.64 in the second season). The weight of a thousand seeds increased by about 42% in both seasons (16.38 g vs. 11.57 g, and 17.41 g vs. 12.33 g, respectively).
In the 2023/24 and 2024/25 growing seasons, all tested treatments—organic manure, vitamins, and active yeast—produced significantly higher seed yields than the untreated control group, as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. Individually, 15 ton/ha of manure were applied, and yield per plant increased in both seasons from 33.53 g to 38.64 g (approximately +15.3%), and yield per ha increased from 1126.6 kg to 1298.3 kg (about +15.3%). Only 100 mg L−1 of vitamin E was applied to the leaves, which increased the yield per plant by about 24% (to ~41.5 g) and increased the yield per ha rate by about 24% (to ~1395 kg), while 15 g/l of active yeast also increased the yield per plant (to~41.7 g) and yield per ha (~1401 kg), giving the similar gains of ~24%. Vitamin B1 at 100 mg L−1 without manure outperformed both, increasing yield per plant by about 30% (to ~43.5 g) and per ha rate by about 30% (to ~1460 kg). The strongest synergistic effect came from combining 100 mg L−1 of vitamin B1 with 15 ton/ha of manure, resulting in 49.54 g yield per plant (≈+47.8%) and 1664.5 kg per ha (≈+47.8%) in the first season, and up to 51.58 g yield per plant (+51.31 kg) and 1733.1 kg yield per ha (+50.7%) in the second season.

3.3. Essential Oil Productivity

Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6 (A and B) show the individual and combined effects of organic manure (5, 10, and 15 ton/ha), vitamin E (50 and 100 mg L−1), vitamin B1 (50 and 100 mg L−1), and active yeast (100 and 150 mL L−1) on the essential oil (%), essential oil yield/plant and essential oil yield/ha of caraway plants during the 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 growing seasons.
Various applications, such as organic manure, vitamins, and active yeast, increased the essential oil content of caraway plants and significantly increased oil production per plant and per ha, compared to the untreated control, in both seasons. Applying only 15 ton/ha of manure increased the essential oil percentage from 3.09% to 3.42% (+10.7%) in the 2023/24 season, and from 3.15% to 3.49% (+10.8%) in the 2024/25 season, while increasing oil production per plant by about 27% (1.04 mL → 1.32 mL; 1.08 mL → 1.38 mL) and oil yield per ha by about 27% (34.94 L → 44.35 l; 36.29 L → 46.37 l). Foliar application of 100 mg L−1 vitamin B1 (without manure) increased oil concentration by about 16% (to 3.58–3.66%), increased oil yield per plant by about 50% (to 1.56–1.62 mL), and increased production per ha by about 50% (to 52.42–54.43 mL), compared to the control. A 100 mg L−1 application of vitamin E gave moderate increases (oil percentage +9.4–9.5%; yield +35%), and 150 mL L−1 of active yeast gave more modest increases (oil % +5.2–5.4%; yield +30%). The synergistic effect was even more pronounced when 100 mg L−1 of B1 was combined with 15 ton/ha of manure: essential oil production jumped by about 46% (to 4.52% and 4.66%), doubling oil production per plant (+115%; 2.24 mL and 2.36 mL), and more than doubling oil production per ha (+115%; 75.26 and 79.30).

3.4. Biochemical Constituents

3.4.1. Photosynthetic Pigments

As shown in Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9 (A and B), this study investigated the effects of organic manure (5, 10, and 15 ton/ha), vitamin E and vitamin B1 (50 and 100 mg L−1 each), and active yeast (100 and 150 mL L−1) on photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoids) of caraway plants during the 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 seasons.
Each of the improvements—organic manure, vitamin spray, and active yeast—led to a significant increase in caraway leaf pigment content compared to the untreated control in the 2023/24 and 2024/25 seasons. Using only 15 ton/ha of manure, chlorophyll a content increased from approximately 2.27–2.34 mg/g to 2.62–2.70 mg/g (an increase of approximately 15.5%), chlorophyll b content increased from 0.79–0.81 mg/g to 0.87–0.90 mg/g (an increase of approximately 10%), and carotenoid content increased from 0.82–0.84 mg/g to 0.96–0.99 mg/g (an increase of approximately 17.8%). Foliar application of 100 mg L−1 of vitamin B1 (without manure) increased chlorophyll a by about 25.9%, chlorophyll b by about 23.8%, and carotenoids by about 22.6%, while 100 mg L−1 of vitamin E achieved almost the same improvements. Applying 150 mL L−1 of active yeast alone increased pigments by about 25.9% in chlorophyll a, about 21.0% in chlorophyll b, and about 12.5% in carotenoids. The strongest synergistic effect was achieved when combining 100 mg L−1 of vitamin B1 with 15 ton/ha of manure: chlorophyll a increased by about 49.6%, chlorophyll b by about 33.1%, and carotenoids by about 35.0%, compared to the control group.

3.4.2. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (%)

Table 7 shows the effect of different levels of organic manure (5, 10, and 15 ton/ha), vitamin E and vitamin B1 (50 and 100 mg L−1 each), and active yeast (100 and 150 mL L−1), alone or in combination, on the percentages of N, P, and K in the dry leaves of caraway plants in the 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 seasons.
Over two growing seasons, untreated caraway leaves contained an average nitrogen content of 2.18–2.24%, phosphorus content of 0.29–0.30%, and potassium content of 0.83–0.85%. Applying only 15 ton/ha of manure increased leaf nitrogen levels to 2.43–2.50% (+11.5% over the control), phosphorus to 0.33–0.34% (+12%), and potassium to 0.92–0.94% (+10.5%). Spraying with 100 mg L−1 vitamin E (without manure) increased leaf nitrogen content by about 28% (to 2.72–2.80%), phosphorus by about 76% (to 0.49–0.50%), and potassium by about 55% (to 1.34–1.38%). Applying 150 mL L−1 of active yeast alone resulted in moderate increases in nitrogen (19.4%), phosphorus (57.2%), and potassium (40.5%). However, when 100 mg L−1 of vitamin B1 was combined with 15 ton/ha of manure, the synergistic effect was most striking: nitrogen increased to 3.11–3.20% (+42–43%), phosphorus to 0.55–0.57% (+90%), and potassium to 1.46–1.50% (+76%). Combining vitamin E with fertilizer resulted in similar, albeit slightly lower increases (N by 38–39%, P by 85–86%, K by 74%).

4. Discussion

Growing caraway in sandy soils (newly reclaimed areas) requires strategies to compensate for their inherently low water-holding capacity, rapid nutrient loss, and low organic matter content. Drip irrigation (which delivers water and dissolved nutrients directly to the root zone) combined with the regular application of organic amendments, such as organic manure, can gradually improve soil texture, increase moisture-retaining pore space, and enhance its cation exchange capacity. Foliar application of biostimulants (such as vitamins B1 and E or active yeast) helps overcome nutrient binding limitations in the soil and delivers key cofactors and antioxidants directly to the leaves, enhancing photosynthesis and stress resistance. Together, these measures transform previously barren sandy soils into a high-yielding environment, enabling rapid root establishment, enhanced water-use efficiency, robust caraway growth, and high essential oil production.

4.1. Growth Parameters

This study demonstrated that applying organic manure at 15 ton/ha substantially enhanced sandy soil’s organic matter, porosity, and water-holding capacity, translating into 10–15% gains in plant height, branch number, and dry herb weight versus unfertilized controls. These improvements align with evidence that organic amendments boost cation exchange capacity and root permeability, ensuring gradual nutrient release and uptake [11]. Together, these soil enhancements set the stage for foliar biostimulants to deliver their full physiological benefits, reinforcing the proven value of organic manure for sustainable crop productivity [12,13,14].
In the same way, foliar application of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) enhances membrane stability and serves as a signaling molecule in light–heat balance, senescence, abscission, and numerous metabolic pathways [18]. By scavenging lipid peroxide radicals, tocopherol helps preserve thylakoid integrity and supports biomass accumulation. Applied alone, vitamin E boosts nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake, underscoring its role in alleviating light-induced stress and sustaining growth under drip-irrigated sandy-soil conditions [19]. Prior research has documented its growth-promoting effects on caraway and other species [31,32,33]. Moreover, combining 15 ton/ha of organic fertilizer with 100 mg L−1 vitamin E produces moderate increases in growth, highlighting its value as a secondary biostimulant.
Additionally, foliar application of vitamin B1 (thiamine) markedly enhanced plant nutritional status, reflecting its function both as thiamine pyrophosphate in carbohydrate metabolism and as a trigger for antioxidant defenses under field conditions, in addition to stimulating root respiration [15,16]. The resulting boost in carbon skeletons and cellular energy drove secondary metabolite production, which corresponded to a 20–36% rise in shoot number and dry herb mass. These improvements in caraway performance mirror outcomes reported by other researchers [34,35]. When 15 ton/ha of organic fertilizer was combined with a 100 mg L−1 thiamine foliar spray, caraway exhibited substantially stronger physiological activity. Root-zone fertility and leaf metabolic capacity both improved roughly two-fold, in agreement with similar findings in other aromatic species [10].
Moreover, active yeast delivers amino acids, B vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B12), minerals, and phytohormones (auxins, cytokinins) that boost cell division, root growth, and protein synthesis [20,22]. Trials report roughly 5% more branching, an 11% increase in herb dry weight, greater plant height and branch number, as well as higher nitrogen and phosphorus in tomato and sugarcane [36]. By stimulating phosphate-solubilizing microbes in the rhizosphere and speeding nutrient cycling, active yeast can be co-applied with fertilizers to enhance microbial interactions and stress resilience [22,37,38].

4.2. Yield and Its Components

Integrating 15 ton/ha of organic manure into sandy soil markedly improved its structure and fertility, leading to measurable boosts in caraway’s yield components. The elevated soil organic matter and porosity facilitated better moisture retention and root function, while localized acidification during organic matter breakdown enhanced phosphorus and micronutrient availability, reducing nutrient runoff. Enhanced microbial turnover accelerated N, P, and K cycling, reflected in 11.5–12% increases in leaf nutrient content [38]. These results corroborate previous findings on organic amendments’ role in optimizing cation exchange and sustained nutrient supply and underline the necessity of pairing soil improvement with foliar biostimulants to maximize physiological responses and overall yield [1,2].
Foliar spraying of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) not only reinforces membrane stability but also regulates light–heat balance, senescence, abscission, and a host of other metabolic processes [18]. Applied on its own, vitamin E boosted oil concentration by about 9.5%, demonstrating its ability to alleviate light-induced stress and sustain growth under drip-irrigated sandy-soil conditions [19]. Earlier work has shown similar yield-enhancing effects of vitamin E on caraway and various other crops [31,32,33]. Furthermore, co-applying 15 tons of organic fertilizer with 100 mg L−1 vitamin E delivered moderate but meaningful gains—30% higher oil content and a 70% increase in oil yield—underscoring its value as a secondary biostimulant.
Furthermore, foliar application of thiamine (100 mg L−1) boosted caraway’s reproductive performance, raising essential oil yield per plant by 50%. By serving as a coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism and activating antioxidant defenses, thiamine increased carbon skeleton availability, energy supply, nutrient uptake, and secondary metabolite synthesis [16]. These effects mirror reports in other medicinal species, where foliar thiamine alleviates drought and salinity stress through enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity and osmolyte accumulation [17,34]. When combined with 15 tons of organic fertilizer, thiamine spray doubled root-zone fertility and leaf metabolic capacity [10], leading to a 56% increase in umbel yield, a 48% rise in seed yield, and a 115% gain in essential oil content.
Functioning as a biostimulant, active yeast provides plants with essential nutrients—plant-available amino acids, B vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B12), and minerals—alongside plant hormones (auxins, cytokinins) that directly stimulate cell division and enlargement [22]. Mechanisms like phosphate solubilization and protective polysaccharide production further support plant growth, potentially leading to modest yield increases. Applied as yeast extracts, it enhances physiological processes such as cell division, root proliferation, and protein synthesis [20]. These effects translate into measurable improvements, notably a 30–35% boost in oil production. Documented benefits include enhanced oil content and yield in caraway plants [31]. Active yeast serves as a valuable, eco-friendly supplement that can be mixed with fertilizers to bolster microbial interactions and improve plant stress tolerance.

4.3. Chemical Composition

Our findings confirm that organic manure at 15 ton/ha transforms marginal sandy soil—boosting soil organic matter, porosity, and water-holding capacity—and drives improvements in essential oil output and leaf nutrient levels. The combined effects of enhanced cation exchange capacity, acidification-mediated nutrient solubilization [39], and heightened microbial activity yielded significant increases in leaf N (11.5%), P (12%), and K (10.5%). This soil foundation amplifies the efficacy of subsequent foliar biostimulants, forging a resilient and sustainable cultivation system. These outcomes echo the extensive literature on organic manure’s agronomic benefits and support integrated nutrient management as a pathway to improved caraway performance and resource stewardship [40,41].
Foliar application of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) likewise fortifies the photosynthetic machinery against oxidative stress, boosting chlorophyll and carotenoid levels. Beyond membrane protection, tocopherol acts as a signaling molecule for light–heat homeostasis [18]. By neutralizing lipid peroxide radicals, it preserves thylakoid membrane integrity, fostering biomass build-up and steady photosynthetic activity; chlorophyll rose by about 25% and carotenoids by roughly 21%, versus the control. Applied alone, vitamin E also increased leaf nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium by 28–55%, underscoring its capacity to enhance growth performance [19]. Previous studies have documented similar improvements in the chemical profiles of caraway and other crops [31,32,33]. When combined with 15 ton/ha of organic manure and sprayed at 100 mg L−1, vitamin E produced marked gains, highlighting its role as an effective secondary biostimulant.
With respect to thiamine, foliar vitamin B1 markedly enhanced caraway’s nutritional and reproductive performance by acting as a coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism and by activating antioxidant defenses under field conditions [16]. Similar effects have been reported in other medicinal species, where foliar thiamine alleviates drought and salinity stress via upregulated antioxidant enzymes and osmo-protectant accumulation [17,42]. Thiamine alone boosted leaf N, P, and K by 25–28%, indicating improved nutrient transporter activity in infertile soils [34,35]. When paired with 15 t/ha of organic manure and a 100 mg L−1 thiamine spray, caraway nutrient uptake rose by 43% (N), 90% (P), and 76% (K), reflecting roughly two-fold gains in root-zone fertility and leaf metabolic capacity—findings consistent with other aromatic crops [10].
Active yeast benefits plants by supplying essential nutrients (amino acids, B vitamins, minerals) and hormones (auxins and cytokinins) that promote cell division and growth [20,22]. It enhances nutrient availability by solubilizing phosphate and producing protective polysaccharides. Applications lead to increased root growth, protein synthesis, and consistent improvements in pigment (13–26%) and leaf nutrient content (19–57%). Yeast also stimulates beneficial soil microbes and nutrient cycling activity [22,37,38], improving plant chemical composition (e.g., N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, and Mn in caraway [31]; N/P in tomato/sugarcane [36]). Combined with manure (15 mL L−1), it increased pigment/nutrients by 35–40%.
The significant synergistic effects between organic fertilizers and biostimulant treatments highlight the importance of integrated soil–plant management in marginal sandy environments. Similar synergistic effects have been recorded in aromatic grasses, where the combination of soil conditioners and foliar antioxidants resulted in higher yield and quality compared to individual inputs [34]. The simultaneous enhancement of plant growth, photosynthetic capacity, nutrient uptake, and lipid biosynthesis suggests that simultaneously enhancing root nutrient supply (via manure) and foliar metabolic regulation (via vitamins) can form a positive feedback loop that improves the overall performance of caraway.

5. Conclusions

This study conclusively demonstrated that combining 15 ton/ha of organic manure with 100 mg L−1 vitamin B1 foliar spray significantly improved caraway growth in sandy soil under drip irrigation. Key results included increases in vegetative growth (35% increase in plant height, 52% increase in branching, 52% increase in herb dry weight), yield (48% increase in seed yield per ha, 56% increase in umbel yield), oil yield (46% increase in essential oil concentration, 115% increase in oil yield per ha), and biochemical quality (50% increase in chlorophyll a, 43% increase in nitrogen, 90% increase in phosphorus, 76% increase in potassium). Vitamin B1 outperformed vitamin E and active yeast in enhancing metabolic activity and alleviating stress. Therefore, we recommend these combined treatments to maximize yield and oil quality while reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers, in line with sustainable agricultural practices. Future research should assess the economic feasibility and scalability of this approach across diverse arid regions, explore cost optimization through reduced input rates, elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which vitamin B1 enhances nutrient uptake and oil synthesis, and evaluate these biostimulants on other high-value aromatic crops grown in marginal soils. Overall, our findings demonstrate that integrating organic manure with targeted foliar biostimulants—particularly vitamin B1—under drip irrigation offers a sustainable strategy to optimize caraway yield, essential oil content, and nutritional quality on marginal sandy soils.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.A.H., R.M.Y.Z., and A.A.B.; methodology, A.A.H., A.F.A.A.-R., and R.M.Y.Z.; software, A.F.A.A.-R., G.H.A.H., and R.M.Y.Z.; validation, A.A.H., W.K.A., and H.S.E.-D.; formal analysis, A.F.A.A.-R., A.A.B. and H.S.E.-D.; investigation, A.A.H., G.H.A.H., and H.S.E.-D.; resources, A.F.A.A.-R., W.K.A., and R.M.Y.Z.; data curation, A.A.H., A.A.B., and H.S.E.-D.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A.H., A.A.B., and H.S.E.-D.; writing—review and editing, A.F.A.A.-R., G.H.A.H., W.K.A., R.M.Y.Z., and A.A.B.; visualization, A.A.H., A.F.A.A.-R., and R.M.Y.Z.; supervision, A.F.A.A.-R., A.A.B., and H.S.E.-D.; project administration, A.A.H., A.F.A.A.-R., and R.M.Y.Z.; funding acquisition, A.A.H., A.F.A.A.-R., G.H.A.H., W.K.A., R.M.Y.Z., A.A.B., and H.S.E.-D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. To clarify, the study did not involve human or animal samples.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the faculty members who helped with advice, materials, or methods in producing this research in its final form.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Location and experimental site of Minya Governorate in Egypt.
Figure 1. Location and experimental site of Minya Governorate in Egypt.
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Figure 2. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on fruit yield/plant (g) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 2. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on fruit yield/plant (g) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Figure 3. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on fruit yield/ha (kg) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 3. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on fruit yield/ha (kg) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Figure 4. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on essential oil (%) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 4. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on essential oil (%) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Figure 5. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on essential oil yield/plant (mL)of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 5. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on essential oil yield/plant (mL)of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Figure 6. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on essential oil yield/ha (l) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 6. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on essential oil yield/ha (l) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Figure 7. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on chlorophyll a (mg/g f.w.) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 7. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on chlorophyll a (mg/g f.w.) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Figure 8. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on chlorophyll b (mg/g f.wt.) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 8. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on chlorophyll b (mg/g f.wt.) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Figure 9. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on carotenoids (mg/g. f.wt.) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
Figure 9. (A,B). Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on carotenoids (mg/g. f.wt.) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25). The data are statistically different, according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at p ≤ 0.05. Interactions are indicated by lowercase letters, unless otherwise mentioned.
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Table 1. Physical and chemical analysis of the used soil during the two seasons of 2023–2024 and 2024–2025.
Table 1. Physical and chemical analysis of the used soil during the two seasons of 2023–2024 and 2024–2025.
Soil Characteristics2023/20242024/2025
Physical properties
Sand (%)91.2290.50
Silt (%)5.365.78
Clay (%)3.423.72
Soil typesandySandy
Available nutrients
Ca++ (mg L−1)133.0138.0
Mg++ (mg L−1)60.162.6
Na+ (mg L−1)79.586.0
K+ (mg L−1)15.721.3
Cl− (mg L−1)10.511.3
CO3−2 (mg L−1)12.413.3
Chemical properties
pH 8.168.20
E.C. (dS/m)1.381.23
Organic matter (%)0.170.14
CaCO3 (%)13.9413.99
DTPA-extractable nutrients
Fe (mg L−1)0.850.94
Cu (mg L−1)0.400.44
Zn (mg L−1)0.310.34
Mn (mg L−1)0.540.60
Table 2. Metrological data for Minya, Egypt during 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 seasons.
Table 2. Metrological data for Minya, Egypt during 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 seasons.
2023/20242024/2025
MonthsOctNovDecJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecJanFebMarAprMayJunJul
Max. temp. (°C)30.2426.021.420.322.125.630.634.736.839.036.935.429.1225.020.120.422.125.630.633.536.839.0
Mean temp. (°C)24.118.413.712.514.117.522.026.629.229.729.628.024.017.013.012.814.317.822.126.429.229.7
Min. temp. (°C)17.411.87.15.56.69.613.518.121.022.222.420.917.112.07.05.46.510.013.818.321.022.2
Low temp. (°C)10.03.0−0.8−3.4−0.31.04.59.014.316.016.213.510.03.2−0.9−3.4−0.31.03.57.014.316.0
Aver. Preci. (mm)00.210.180.680.750.830.030.14000000.230.240.680.750.830.030.1400
Aver. precipitation days (≥1.0 mm)00.080.080.230.380.2700.04000000.080.10.230.380.2700.0400
Average relative humidity (%)55616743374046515355424255546266423943535355
Source: NOAA (humidity, dew point, records).
Table 3. Chemical analysis of the organic manure used during the 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 growing seasons.
Table 3. Chemical analysis of the organic manure used during the 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 growing seasons.
Manure CharacteristicsValues
2023/20242024/2025
pH (1:1)7.437.39
E.C. (dS/m)1.031.09
O.M. (%)27.4327.75
O.C. (%)15.9516.14
C/N ratio19.6918.55
Humidity (%)8.047.93
Total N (%)0.810.87
Total P (%)0.240.29
Total K (%)1.081.06
Fe (mg kg−1)385379
Mn (mg kg−1)234232
Zn (mg kg−1)271269
Table 4. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on plant height (cm) and stem diameter (cm) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Table 4. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on plant height (cm) and stem diameter (cm) of caraway plants during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Vitamins and Active Yeast
Treatments (B)		Organic Manure (ton/ha) (A)
0.05.01015Mean (B)0.05.01015Mean (B)
First Season (2023/2024)Second Season (2024/2025)
Plant Height (cm)
Control (Without)146.54 ± 4.90155.90 ± 7.21162.45 ± 8.14174.41 ± 7.18159.82149.59 ± 6.88159.06 ± 7.33165.94 ± 8.28178.01 ± 7.26163.15
Vit. E at 50 mg L−1157.98 ± 4.93168.06 ± 5.24172.12 ± 6.79182.52 ± 6.55170.17161.36 ± 4.98171.66 ± 5.31175.72 ± 6.93186.34 ± 6.59173.77
Vit. E at 100 mg L−1162.34 ± 5.38172.74 ± 5.74179.71 ± 7.22183.77 ± 7.20174.64165.73 ± 5.47176.35 ± 5.84183.42 ± 7.37187.59 ± 7.24178.27
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−1158.39 ± 6.06168.48 ± 6.49172.74 ± 8.19180.44 ± 8.25170.01161.98 ± 6.17171.97 ± 6.57176.45 ± 8.36184.26 ± 8.30173.66
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−1167.23 ± 7.34177.94 ± 7.84188.07 ± 9.51198.08 ± 9.10182.83170.83 ± 7.50181.65 ± 7.97192.00 ± 9.73202.02 ± 9.14186.63
Active yeast at 100 mL L−1152.57 ± 5.73162.34 ± 6.48169.21 ± 9.15181.69 ± 9.01166.45155.84 ± 6.03165.73 ± 6.03172.70 ± 5.30185.51 ± 9.01169.94
Active yeast at 150 mL L−1160.68 ± 5.55171.50 ± 6.55176.49 ± 5.26183.04 ± 9.15172.93163.85 ± 5.55174.26 ± 6.55180.20 ± 5.26186.96 ± 9.15176.32
Mean (A)157.96168.14174.40183.42 161.31171.53178.06187.24
L.S.D. at 5%A: 5.95B: 4.11AB: 8.22A: 6.01B: 3.55AB: 7.10
Stem Diameter (cm)
Control (Without)2.170 ± 0.082.28 ± 0.092.38 ± 0.082.46 ± 0.072.322.21 ± 0.052.32 ± 0.092.44 ± 0.082.51 ± 0.082.37
Vit. E at 50 mg L−12.25 ± 0.072.39 ± 0.082.51 ± 0.062.58 ± 0.062.432.29 ± 0.072.45 ± 0.072.56 ± 0.062.63 ± 0.052.48
Vit. E at 100 mg L−12.31 ± 0.082.46 ± 0.082.54 ± 0.072.61 ± 0.072.482.36 ± 0.082.51 ± 0.082.59 ± 0.072.67 ± 0.052.53
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−12.26 ± 0.092.41 ± 0.092.52 ± 0.082.60 ± 0.082.452.30 ± 0.092.47 ± 0.092.57 ± 0.082.65 ± 0.062.50
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−12.43 ± 0.102.58 ± 0.112.66 ± 0.092.70 ± 0.092.592.36 ± 0.102.63 ± 0.102.72 ± 0.092.76 ± 0.082.62
Active yeast at 100 mL L−12.23 ± 0.042.37 ± 0.052.49 ± 0.032.56 ± 0.032.412.27 ± 0.042.43 ± 0.042.54 ± 0.032.61 ± 0.012.46
Active yeast at 150 mL L−12.28 ± 0.052.44 ± 0.062.53 ± 0.042.61 ± 0.042.462.32 ± 0.052.49 ± 0.052.58 ± 0.022.67 ± 0.012.52
Mean (A)2.272.422.522.59 2.302.472.572.64
L.S.D. at 5%A: 0.06B: 0.01AB: 0.02A: 0.05B: 0.01AB: 0.02
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation (SD) of three replicates. Treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at p = 0.05.
Table 5. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on the number of branches/plant and herb dry weight/plant (g) of caraway plant during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Table 5. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on the number of branches/plant and herb dry weight/plant (g) of caraway plant during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Vitamins and Active Yeast
Treatments (B)		Organic Manure (ton/ha) (A)
0.05.01015Mean (B)0.05.01015Mean (B)
First Season (2023/2024)Second Season (2024/2025)
Number of branches/plant
Control (Without)11.39 ± 0.7212.11 ± 0.7412.73 ± 0.5913.14 ± 1.3312.3411.6 ± 0.7512.33 ± 0.7812.95 ± 0.6213.36 ± 1.3512.56
Vit. E at 50 mg L−112.11 ± 0.6612.80 ± 0.6813.35 ± 0.5013.87 ± 1.3413.0412.33 ± 0.7013.05 ± 0.7213.68 ± 0.5014.19 ± 1.3413.31
Vit. E at 100 mg L−112.63 ± 0.7213.46 ± 0.7313.97 ± 0.5214.39 ± 1.4413.6112.85 ± 0.7613.78 ± 0.7814.3 ± 0.5314.71 ± 1.4513.91
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−112.21 ± 0.8213.04 ± 0.8313.46 ± 0.5914.08 ± 1.6513.2012.43 ± 0.7613.26 ± 0.8813.78 ± 0.6014.4 ± 1.6613.47
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−113.66 ± 0.9914.42 ± 1.0114.59 ± 0.6917.25 ± 1.9414.9813.99 ± 1.0514.75 ± 1.0714.92 ± 0.6917.58 ± 1.9415.31
Active yeast at 100 mL L−111.9 ± 0.0812.63 ± 0.7213.25 ± 0.2913.66 ± 1.3212.8612.12 ± 0.7012.85 ± 0.7513.57 ± 0.3013.99 ± 1.3213.13
Active yeast at 150 mL L−112.010.05512.73 ± 0.7513.66 ± 0.5514.18 ± 1.5513.1512.22 ± 0.7512.95 ± 7213.99 ± 0.3514.5 ± 1.4213.42
Mean (A) 12.2713.0313.5714.37 12.5113.2813.8814.68
L.S.D. at 5%A: 0.38B: 0.42AB: 0.84A: 0.41B: 0.52AB: 1.04
Herb dry weight/plant (g)
Control (Without)71.13 ± 8.4375.63 ± 8.9878.87 ± 8.3581.48 ± 8.8376.7872.60 ± 8.5877.10 ± 9.1980.45 ± 8.5283.16 ± 8.9778.33
Vit. E at 50 mg L−176.04 ± 8.1880.86 ± 8.7283.78 ± 8.0087.13 ± 8.4981.9577.52 ± 8.3482.43 ± 8.9285.47 ± 8.1788.92 ± 8.6383.58
Vit. E at 100 mg L−184.41 ± 8.6589.85 ± 9.2292.47 ± 8.3794.35 ± 9.0090.2786.09 ± 8.8191.64 ± 9.4294.36 ± 8.5496.24 ± 9.1592.08
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−178.55 ± 9.9283.58 ± 10.5686.50 ± 9.5987.97 ± 10.3884.1580.13 ± 10.1085.26 ± 10.8088.19 ± 9.7989.76 ± 10.6585.83
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−196.55 ± 11.81102.72 ± 12.58104.12 ± 11.34108.32 ± 11.86102.9398.44 ± 12.02104.82 ± 12.85106.2 ± 11.56110.42 ± 12.06104.98
Active yeast at 100 mL L−174.06 ± 3.5578.76 ± 3.7882.11 ± 4.4484.94 ± 9.0179.9775.53 ± 3.6280.34 ± 3.8583.79 ± 4.5186.62 ± 9.0181.57
Active yeast at 150 mL L−179.08 ± 9.8284.10 ± 11.1588.39 ± 10.2293.20 ± 8.8586.1980.65 ± 10.2585.78 ± 10.5290.17 ± 10.2495.09 ± 11.1287.92
Mean (A) 79.9785.0788.0391.06 81.5786.7789.8292.89
L.S.D. at 5%A: 2.71B: 1.10AB: 2.20A: 2.76B: 1.71AB: 3.42
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation (SD) of three replicates. Treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at p = 0.05.
Table 6. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on the number of umbels/plant, and weight of 1000 seed (g) of caraway plant during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Table 6. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on the number of umbels/plant, and weight of 1000 seed (g) of caraway plant during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Vitamins and Active Yeast
Treatments (B)		Organic Manure (ton/ha) (A)
0.05.01015Mean (B)0.05.01015Mean (B)
First Season (2023/2024)Second Season (2024/2025)
Number of umbels/plant
Control (Without)24.13 ± 2.9425.67 ± 3.1227.25 ± 2.9227.35 ± 3.4726.1024.64 ± 3.0026.22 ± 3.2027.82 ± 2.9930.04 ± 3.0127.18
Vit. E at 50 mg L−125.81 ± 2.6827.45 ± 2.8529.01 ± 2.6532.12 ± 2.5928.6026.35 ± 2.7428.00 ± 2.9329.62 ± 2.7232.79 ± 2.6429.19
Vit. E at 100 mg L−129.99 ± 2.6431.91 ± 2.8033.67 ± 2.6235.74 ± 2.6832.8330.62 ± 2.6932.58 ± 2.8734.38 ± 2.6936.49 ± 2.7333.52
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−127.65 ± 2.9729.42 ± 3.1530.25 ± 2.8433.15 ± 2.9930.1228.23 ± 3.0330.04 ± 3.2330.88 ± 2.9233.85 ± 3.0530.75
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−132.04 ± 3.5434.08 ± 3.7634.53 ± 3.2837.67 ± 3.5734.5832.72 ± 3.6134.83 ± 3.8535.30 ± 3.3738.45 ± 3.6335.32
Active yeast at 100 mL L−125.13 ± 3.3726.74 ± 3.5928.39 ± 3.5930.64 ± 3.4527.7325.66 ± 3.4427.30 ± 3.6628.98 ± 3.6731.29 ± 2.5628.31
Active yeast at 150 mL L−129.90 ± 2.4231.81 ± 2.7533.46 ± 2.4535.22 ± 3.2232.6030.53 ± 2.5832.47 ± 2.8534.17 ± 2.5535.96 ± 2.6533.28
Mean (A) 27.8129.5830.9433.13 28.3930.2131.5934.12
L.S.D. at 5%A: 1.18B: 1.24AB: 2.48A: 1.22B: 1.25AB: 2.50
Weight of 1000 seeds (g)
Control (Without)11.57 ± 0.6712.39 ± 0.6113.09 ± 0.5113.49 ± 0.9012.6412.33 ± 0.7013.19 ± 0.6513.94 ± 0.5314.37 ± 0.9513.46
Vit. E at 50 mg L−112.49 ± 0.5313.29 ± 0.4513.69 ± 0.4014.18 ± 0.8513.4113.30 ± 0.5514.15 ± 0.4914.58 ± 0.4115.11 ± 0.8914.29
Vit. E at 100 mg L−113.19 ± 0.5614.00 ± 0.4814.47 ± 0.4114.67 ± 0.9114.0814.04 ± 0.5914.90 ± 0.5215.44 ± 0.4215.65 ± 0.9515.01
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−112.59 ± 0.6113.39 ± 5013.79 ± 0.4114.32 ± 1.0413.5213.40 ± 0.6414.26 ± 0.5414.68 ± 0.3915.22 ± 1.1014.39
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−113.52 ± 0.7314.01 ± 0.6014.50 ± 0.4616.38 ± 1.2014.6014.37 ± 0.7714.98 ± 0.6515.33 ± 0.4517.41 ± 1.2615.52
Active yeast at 100 mL L−112.08 ± 0.6712.89 ± 0.6613.59 ± 0.4414.08 ± 0.8213.1612.86 ± 0.6913.73 ± 0.6714.47 ± 0.4515.01 ± 1.0514.02
Active yeast at 150 mL L−113.03 ± 0.5213.82 ± 0.7214.21 ± 0.3514.61 ± 0.8813.9213.83 ± 0.7214.68 ± 0.6215.11 ± 0.4215.54 ± 0.9814.79
Mean (A) 12.6413.4013.9114.53 13.4514.2714.7915.47
L.S.D. at 5%A: 0.41B: 0.89AB: 1.78A: 0.52B: 0.94AB: 1.88
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation (SD) of three replicates. Treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at p = 0.05.
Table 7. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (%) of caraway leaves during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Table 7. Effects of organic manure, vitamin E, vitamin B1, and active yeast treatments on nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (%) of caraway leaves during the two growing seasons (2023/24 and 2024/25).
Vitamins and Active Yeast
Treatments (B)		Organic Manure (ton/ha) (A)
0.05.01015Mean (B)0.05.01015Mean (B)
First Season (2023/2024)Second Season (2024/2025)
Nitrogen (%)
Control (Without)2.178 ± 0.242.317 ± 0.252.385 ± 0.252.428 ± 0.262.3272.244 ± 0.242.388 ± 0.262.458 ± 0.262.502 ± 0.272.398
Vit. E at 50 mg L−12.299 ± 0.212.445 ± 0.232.514 ± 0.232.549 ± 0.242.4522.369 ± 0.222.520 ± 0.232.591 ± 0.242.627 ± 0.252.527
Vit. E at 100 mg L−12.718 ± 0.202.892 ± 0.212.934 ± 0.223.016 ± 0.232.8902.801 ± 0.212.980 ± 0.223.023 ± 0.233.108 ± 0.242.978
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−12.530 ± 0.212.692 ± 0.232.714 ± 0.242.749 ± 0.242.6712.607 ± 0.212.773 ± 0.232.797 ± 0.252.833 ± 0.252.753
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−12.781 ± 0.262.959 ± 0.283.059 ± 0.293.108 ± 0.292.9772.866 ± 0.223.049 ± 0.283.153 ± 0.303.203 ± 0.303.067
Active yeast at 100 mL L−12.269 ± 0.232.414 ± 0.252.484 ± 0.262.529 ± 0.292.4242.338 ± 0.242.488 ± 0.262.560 ± 0.262.606 ± 0.302.498
Active yeast at 150 mL L−12.601 ± 0.212.768 ± 0.222.845 ± 0.262.889 ± 0.412.7762.690 ± 0.252.853 ± 0.262.932 ± 0.282.977 ± 0.322.863
Mean (A) 2.4822.6412.7052.752 2.5592.7222.7882.837
L.S.D. at 5%A: 0.055B: 0.046AB: 0.092A: 0.042B: 0.037AB: 0.074
Phosphorus (%)
Control (Without)0.290 ± 0.090.308 ± 0.100.316 ± 0.100.325 ± 0.100.3100.300 ± 0.100.317 ± 0.100.326 ± 0.110.335 ± 0.100.319
Vit. E at 50 mg L−10.317 ± 0.090.338 ± 0.090.340 ± 0.100.348 ± 0.090.3360.327 ± 0.090.348 ± 0.100.350 ± 0.100.359 ± 0.100.346
Vit. E at 100 mg L−10.490 ± 0.080.521 ± 0.090.537 ± 0.090.539 ± 0.090.5220.504 ± 0.080.537 ± 0.090.552 ± 0.090.554 ± 0.090.537
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−10.448 ± 0.090.477 ± 0.090.483 ± 0.090.489 ± 0.090.4740.462 ± 0.090.491 ± 0.100.497 ± 0.100.503 ± 0.100.488
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−10.510 ± 0.110.543 ± 0.120.547 ± 0.110.553 ± 0.110.5380.525 ± 0.110.558 ± 0.120.564 ± 0.120.570 ± 0.120.554
Active yeast at 100 mL L−10.303 ± 0.100.321 ± 0.120.330 ± 0.100.339 ± 0.110.3230.312 ± 0.100.331 ± 0.120.339 ± 0.100.349 ± 0.120.333
Active yeast at 150 mL L−10.456 ± 0.100.485 ± 0.100.492 ± 0.110.504 ± 0.110.4840.470 ± 0.110.499 ± 0.120.508 ± 0.120.519 ± 0.130.499
Mean (A) 0.4020.4280.4350.442 0.4140.4400.4480.456
L.S.D. at 5%A: 0.008B: 0.007AB: 0.014A: 0.007B: 0.006AB: 0.012
Potassium (%)
Control (Without)0.829 ± 0.230.883 ± 0.240.891 ± 0.240.916 ± 0.240.8800.854 ± 0.230.909 ± 0.250.917 ± 0.250.943 ± 0.250.906
Vit. E at 50 mg L−10.877 ± 0.210.932 ± 0.230.945 ± 0.230.967 ± 0.230.9300.903 ± 0.220.960 ± 0.240.972 ± 0.240.996 ± 0.230.958
Vit. E at 100 mg L−11.343 ± 0.201.429 ± 0.211.440 ± 0.211.444 ± 0.211.4141.383 ± 0.201.472 ± 0.221.483 ± 0.221.487 ± 0.211.456
Vit. B1 at 50 mg L−11.146 ± 0.201.220 ± 0.211.233 ± 0.221.248 ± 0.221.2121.180 ± 0.211.256 ± 0.221.270 ± 0.221.285 ± 0.221.248
Vit. B1 at 100 mg L−11.353 ± 0.251.440 ± 0.261.447 ± 0.221.460 ± 0.261.4251.394 ± 0.251.483 ± 0.271.490 ± 0.271.503 ± 0.271.467
Active yeast at 100 mL L−10.864 ± 0.210.920 ± 0.220.928 ± 0.260.954 ± 0.230.9160.890 ± 0.220.947 ± 0.230.956 ± 0.260.982 ± 0.250.944
Active yeast at 150 mL L−11.164 ± 0.211.238 ± 0.241.291 ± 0.221.337 ± 0.251.2571.199 ± 0.221.275 ± 0.251.329 ± 0.221.377 ± 0.281.295
Mean (A) 1.0821.1521.1681.189 1.1151.1861.2031.225
L.S.D. at 5%A: 0.018B: 0.016AB: 0.032A: 0.019B: 0.017AB: 0.034
Data are expressed as means ± standard deviation (SD) of three replicates. Treatment means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at p = 0.05.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Hassan, A.A.; Abdel-Rahim, A.F.A.; Al Hawas, G.H.; Alshammari, W.K.; Zewail, R.M.Y.; Badawy, A.A.; El-Desouky, H.S. Optimizing Caraway Growth, Yield and Phytochemical Quality Under Drip Irrigation: Synergistic Effects of Organic Manure and Foliar Application with Vitamins B1 and E and Active Yeast. Horticulturae 2025, 11, 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080977

AMA Style

Hassan AA, Abdel-Rahim AFA, Al Hawas GH, Alshammari WK, Zewail RMY, Badawy AA, El-Desouky HS. Optimizing Caraway Growth, Yield and Phytochemical Quality Under Drip Irrigation: Synergistic Effects of Organic Manure and Foliar Application with Vitamins B1 and E and Active Yeast. Horticulturae. 2025; 11(8):977. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080977

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hassan, Ahmed A., Amir F.A. Abdel-Rahim, Ghadah H. Al Hawas, Wadha Kh. Alshammari, Reda M.Y. Zewail, Ali A. Badawy, and Heba S. El-Desouky. 2025. "Optimizing Caraway Growth, Yield and Phytochemical Quality Under Drip Irrigation: Synergistic Effects of Organic Manure and Foliar Application with Vitamins B1 and E and Active Yeast" Horticulturae 11, no. 8: 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080977

APA Style

Hassan, A. A., Abdel-Rahim, A. F. A., Al Hawas, G. H., Alshammari, W. K., Zewail, R. M. Y., Badawy, A. A., & El-Desouky, H. S. (2025). Optimizing Caraway Growth, Yield and Phytochemical Quality Under Drip Irrigation: Synergistic Effects of Organic Manure and Foliar Application with Vitamins B1 and E and Active Yeast. Horticulturae, 11(8), 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080977

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