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Article

Mitigating Water Stress and Enhancing Aesthetic Quality in Off-Season Potted Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ via Potassium Silicate Under Deficit Irrigation

by
Vannak Sour
1,
Anoma Dongsansuk
2,
Supat Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya
1,
Soraya Ruamrungsri
3,4 and
Panupon Hongpakdee
1,*
1
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40000, Thailand
2
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40000, Thailand
3
Department of Plant and Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
4
H.M. The Kings’ Initiative Centre for Flower and Fruit Propagation, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2025, 11(7), 856; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070856
Submission received: 20 June 2025 / Revised: 11 July 2025 / Accepted: 18 July 2025 / Published: 20 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Topic Optimizing Plants and Cultivation System for Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA))
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

Curcuma spp. is a popular ornamental crop valued for its vibrant appearance and suitability for both regular and off-season production. As global emphasis on freshwater conservation increases and with a demand for compact potted plants, reducing water use while maintaining high aesthetic quality presents a key challenge for horticulturists. Potassium silicate (PS) has been proposed as a foliar spray to alleviate plant water stress. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of PS on growth, ornamental traits, and photosynthetic parameters of off-season potted Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ under deficit irrigation (DI). Plants were subjected to three treatments in a completely randomized design: 100% crop evapotranspiration (ETc), 50% ETc, and 50% ETc with 1000 ppm PS (weekly sprayed on leaves for 11 weeks). Both DI treatments (50% ETc and 50% ETc + PS) reduced plant height by 7.39% and 9.17%, leaf number by 16.99% and 7.03%, and total biomass by 21.13% and 20.58%, respectively, compared to 100% ETc. Notably, under DI, PS-treated plants maintained several parameters equivalent to the 100% ETc treatment, including flower bud emergence, blooming period, green bract number, effective quantum yield of PSII (ΔF/Fm′), and electron transport rate (ETR). In addition, PS application increased leaf area by 8.11% and compactness index by 9.80% relative to untreated plants. Photosynthetic rate, ΔF/Fm′, and ETR increased by 31.52%, 13.63%, and 9.93%, while non-photochemical quenching decreased by 16.51% under water-limited conditions. These findings demonstrate that integrating deficit irrigation with PS foliar application can enhance water use efficiency and maintain ornamental quality in off-season potted Curcuma, promoting sustainable water management in horticulture.

1. Introduction

The global demand for potted plants has steadily increased, driven by urbanization, lifestyle changes, and growing interest in indoor gardening and sustainable living [1]. The market for potted plants is projected to expand from USD 1.18 billion in 2025 to USD 1.5 billion by 2030 [2]. Aesthetic appeal is a critical factor influencing consumer preferences; desirable traits include compact and well-proportioned forms, lush green foliage, and vivid floral displays [3]. To meet market expectations, growers often regulate plant growth using chemical growth retardants such as paclobutrazol and uniconazole [4,5]. However, the use of these substances raises environmental concerns, as their residues may leach into and contaminate groundwater [6].
Curcuma spp., a member of the Zingiberaceae family, has gained popularity as a floriculture crop due to its long floral stems, vibrant colors, and extended shelf life, making it suitable for both cut flower and potted plant markets [7]. The crop typically grows from April to August, which is a regular season. Since C. alismatifolia has been classified as a facultative long-day plant [8], its cultivation can be extended into the off-season (October to February) using night-break (NB) treatments, thereby enabling year-round production and meeting off-season ornamental demand [9]. However, potted plant production often leads to substantial water losses through leaching, which can carry residual chemicals and nutrients into the environment, especially groundwater [10].
Freshwater scarcity has become a critical global issue, with agriculture accounting for nearly 70% of freshwater withdrawals worldwide [11,12]. It poses significant challenges to horticultural ornamental crops. When water is limited, ornamental plants, which are valued mainly for their appearance, often suffer from reduced growth, leaf wilting, fewer flowers, and poor coloration [13,14]. Water stress can also increase the risk of pest and disease outbreaks, making plants less resilient and diminishing their market value [15]. Furthermore, the use of lower-quality water, such as saline or recycled sources, can lead to salt accumulation in the soil, causing leaf burn, root damage, and further reducing ornamental quality [16]. In landscaping and nursery production, water shortages may restrict the diversity and availability of plant choices, raise production costs, and negatively impact business sustainability. Ultimately, water scarcity threatens both the aesthetic appeal and economic viability of ornamental horticulture globally [17]. According to these problems, various water shortage solution was employed in horticultural crops. Deficit irrigation (DI), one of the water-saving strategies that applies water below the full crop evapotranspiration requirement, has emerged as a sustainable technique for improving water use efficiency (WUE) while maintaining acceptable plant quality [18]. In potted ornamentals, DI has been shown to control plant size, enhance stress tolerance, and even improve certain aesthetic traits such as compactness and flowering [19,20]. For instance, Inkham et al. [21] demonstrated that applying 50% of ETc to Curcuma alismatifolia Gagnep. reduced plant height, leaf number, leaf area, and dry weight. Nevertheless, water stress induced by DI may negatively affect ornamental quality. Severe water limitations can lead to physiological stress, as observed in Dianthus, where reduced leaf water potential and visual quality were reported under severe deficit conditions [22].
To counteract these effects, the application of potassium silicate (PS), which combines with DI, has shown potential in mitigating drought stress. PS (K2SiO3) plays a significant role in enhancing plant resilience under abiotic stress by regulating stomatal behavior and providing photoprotection, primarily due to the synergistic effects of its potassium (K) and silicon (Si) components. Si is deposited in leaf tissues, reinforcing cell walls and forming a physical barrier that modulates the expression of aquaporin genes that influence guard cell function and stomatal movement [23,24]. K, essential for guard cell turgor regulation, further facilitates appropriate stomatal responses to water deficit [25]. Combined, these effects help maintain optimal water status and reduce excessive water loss in plants. Additionally, PS enhances plant photoprotection by strengthening antioxidant enzyme activities, stabilizing chlorophyll, and reducing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, thereby preserving photosystem II efficiency and minimizing photooxidative damage under high light or drought conditions [26]. Recent studies confirm that such mechanisms not only promote water-use efficiency but also safeguard plant health and appearance amid environmental stresses, as shown in Bellis perennis [27], Agrostis stolonifera L. [28], and banana [29].
Despite these promising findings, no research has addressed the combined use of DI and PS in off-season potted Curcuma production, particularly regarding effects on visual quality and physiological responses. Given the increasing demand for water-efficient ornamental production systems, this study aims to evaluate the interactive effects of DI and PS application on growth, physiology, and aesthetic traits of off-season potted Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’. Specifically, we hypothesize that PS application can substantially alleviate the negative effects of water stress, allowing for reduced irrigation without diminishing plant quality or ornamental value. This study will contribute to the economic viability of off-season Curcuma production by helping growers optimize water use and reduce input costs. The findings are expected to benefit farmers through more efficient resource management, enhance scientific understanding of stress mitigation in ornamental crops, and support the sustainable expansion of the Curcuma industry.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Preparation

The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications and nine pots per treatment. This study was carried out from 1 October 2024 to 31 March 2025 at the central nursery of the Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand. Temperature and relative humidity were recorded hourly using a datalogger (TENMARS TM-305U, Taiwan). The average light intensity inside the nursery was 781 ± 92.52 µmol m−2 s−1, with a mean day length of 11.24 ± 0.009 h. The average temperature and relative humidity during the experimental period were 27.17 ± 2.58 °C and 63.65 ± 3.51%, respectively.
The plant material used in this study was Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ is a commercially cultivated ornamental ginger known for its compact growth and vibrant pink floral bracts [30]. Rhizomes were obtained from a certified commercial grower in Chiang Mai Province, and their identity was verified based on records from The Royal Park Rajapruek, a renowned Thai botanical garden managed by the Highland Research and Development Institute (https://www.royalparkrajapruek.org).
Uniformity of 2.5 cm rhizome diameter in ‘Jasmine Pink’ with four storage roots was achieved by soaking the rhizomes in tap water for three days, with the water replaced daily to stimulate sprouting. The rhizomes with a swollen green bud were planted in 2.2-L black pots (8-inch size) containing a growing medium composed of soil, rice husk, and rice husk charcoal in a 1:1:1 ratio (v/v/v). The growing media’s pH and EC were 5.85 and 0.23 mS/m2, respectively, while containing organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and extractable potassium as 5.66%, 0.09%, 123.33 mg kg−1, and 342.09 mg kg−1, respectively. The pots were watered daily. On the 35th day after planting (DAP) (4 November 2024), plants were selected and divided into three treatments (T). T1: Plants received 50% ETc, T2: Plants received 50% ETc + 1000 ppm of PS, T3: Plants received 100% ETc. The treatment with 100% ETc was used as the fundamental or indicator treatment in our study, where plants received normal water application as practical for the grower.
PS is an agricultural-grade product containing 1% P and K (Chemrich, Bangkok, Thailand). A silica solution was prepared at a concentration of 1000 ppm using deionized water, while the control treatment was sprayed with deionized water alone. Leaf surfactant was added at a rate of 1 mL per liter of the PS solution. All leaves of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ was sprayed with 10.6 ± 0.54 mL per plant each time, using hand-held sprayers, ensuring thorough coverage of both the adaxial and abaxial surfaces until the solution began to drip from the leaves. The PS solution was applied once per week for a total of 11 applications, beginning on the first day the plants entered the treatment.
The ETc values of potted off-season Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ was derived from a previous study, in which irrigation was separated by growing stage, vegetative stage, flowering stage, pre-dormancy stage, and dormancy stage, which had Kc values of 2.14, 3.56, 3.68, and 3.19, respectively. The irrigation level was calculated according to Allen [31] and Seelatlao et al. [9] with some modification as follows:
ETc = Kc × Epan × Kp
where ETc = the plant water consumption (mm m−2pot−1day−1); Kc = the off-season potted crop coefficient of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ at each growth stage; Epan = the Class A pan evaporation data obtained from the Khon Kaen Meteorological Center for the same period of the previous year; and Kp = the pan coefficient for Thailand (0.85) according to Vudhivanidi [32].
Once the ETc value was calculated, it was used to determine the amount of water to apply, expressed in mm m−2 (with 1 mm = 1 L m−2). Since the canopy area (represented by the pot rim) was 0.021 m2, the required water volume was converted from mm m−2 to mL per pot by multiplying the ETc value by 0.021 and 10,000 (to convert liters to milliliters).
Thus, after calculation, during the vegetative growth stage (35–75 DAP), plants receiving 100% ETc were irrigated with 160 mL of water daily in the morning. During the flowering stage (76–135 DAP), irrigation was increased to 250 mL per day, and during the pre-dormancy stage (136–180 DAP), plants received 260 mL pot−1. The other two treatments received half these amounts (Table 1).
To compensate for the short-day photoperiod during the off-season, a 60-watt incandescent lamp (PPFD = 7 µmol m−2s−1, R:FR = 0.583, YPFD = 6.926 µmol m−2s−1) was used as a night break technique for the success procedure to promote flowering in Curcuma species [8,9], operating 2 h a day from 20:00 to 22:00 daily throughout the experiment.
During the vegetative growth stage, a top-dressing fertilizer with a formulation of 15N–15P2O5–15K2O was applied at a total rate of 7 g per plant, divided into biweekly applications. Upon entering the flowering stage, the fertilizer was switched to 13N–13P2O5–27K2O, applied at the same total rate of 7 g per plant.

2.2. Phenological Shift and Plant Growth Parameters

The phenological shift of ‘Jasmine Pink’ was observed daily, with modifications based on Seelatlao et al. [9], to determine the timing of key phenotypic transitions. These stages included stage I or shooting stage, observed from cultivated day to 35th day, stage II or fully expanded leaf stage was the transition from the shooting stage to the fully expanded leaf stage (characterized by the development of four fully expanded leaves), stage III or the flowering stage which marked by the visible emergence of flower buds, flower blooming (defined as the first bloom of a true flower), and stage IV, the cessation of inflorescence (with vase life measured from the first true flower bloom to full senescence) until the plants were being dormancy (stage V, dormancy stage).
In each growth stage, nine pots per treatment were gently removed from the growing media with tap water, and then growth parameters were measured. Data collected included plant height (cm), number of leaves per cluster, number of shoots, total leaf area (cm2), number of rhizomes and storage roots, as well as the dry weights of the plants in each pot [9]. The compactness index was calculated as the ratio of total leaf area (cm2) divided by plant height (cm), following the method described by Yang et al. [33], which was measured at the flowering stage (115 DAP). The water use efficiency (WUE) was calculated by the ratio of total dry weight (mg) and total water used (mL) [10].

2.3. Photosynthetic Parameters

The vegetative growth stage is considered the most active period for photosynthesis, as the plant accumulates carbohydrates to support the upcoming reproductive phase. Photosynthetic parameters were measured during the fully expanded leaf stage. Leaf greenness was measured on all leaves using a chlorophyll meter (SPAD-502, Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan). Chlorophyll fluorescence was measured with a pulse amplitude modulation fluorometer (Mini PAM-2000, Heinz Walz GmbH, Effeltrich, Germany) as described by Chandarak et al. [34]. Thirty minutes of equipment clips (DCL 8) were attached to the ‘Jasmine Pink’ leaf prior to measuring the minimal (Fo) and maximal (Fm) fluorescence yield in the dark-adapted state of leaf tissues. In light-adapted leaves, steady-state (Fs) and maximal (Fm′) fluorescence yields were evaluated. The variable fluorescence yield in both dark (Fv = Fm − Fo) and light-adapted (Fv′ = Fm′ − Fo′) leaves was calculated.
The leaf CO2 gas exchange was measured one day before destructive data (74 DAP). The parameters were measured, including net photosynthetic rate (A), stomatal conductance (Gs), and transpiration rate (E). These parameters were investigated in the 2nd leaf (from top) using the Portable Photosynthesis System—LI-6800 Photosynthesis System (LICOR Inc., Lincoln, NE, USA). The measurement was conducted from 9.00 a.m. to 11.00 a.m. under the following conditions, i.e., CO2 concentration at 400 ppm, air flow rate at 400 mmol s−1, leaf temperature at 30 ± 2 °C, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at 1000 µmol m−2 s−1, and leaf area of 6 cm2.

2.4. Data Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using Statistix 10 analytical software package (SXW, Tallahassee, FL, USA). Data from all measured parameters were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) appropriate for a completely randomized design. When significant treatment effects were observed (p < 0.05), mean values were compared using Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at the 0.05 significance level.

3. Results

3.1. Phenological Shift, Plant Growth, and Yields

A decrease of 50% in the water application for Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ resulted in delaying transition from the shooting stage to the fully expanded leaf stage, approximately 3–4 DAP, subsequently delaying flowering bud initiation. Nevertheless, weekly application with 1000 ppm of PS induced fast emergence of flowering buds and flower blooming at the same time as the treatment received 100% ETc (Table 2). All irrigation levels showed no significant difference in terms of inflorescent display period (Table 2).
No significant differences were observed among irrigation levels in terms of shoot number, leaf number, new rhizome number, new storage root size, and root-to-shoot ratio (Table 3). However, the 100% ETc treatment resulted in higher values for plant height (by 7.39% and 9.17%), total leaf area (by 30.89% and 24.79%), new storage root number (by 21.97% and 22.95%), and total dry weight (by 21.13% and 20.58%) compared to both deficit irrigation (DI) and DI with PS treatments, respectively. Notably, the application of PS increased the total leaf area by 8.11%, which subsequently led to a 9.80% higher compactness index compared to the untreated deficit irrigation treatment (Table 3).
Adequate water availability (100% ETc) resulted in the highest flower quality, as evidenced by increased stalk length, inflorescence length, inflorescence diameter, coma bract size, and green bract development (Table 4, Figure 1b). However, the application of PS under water-deficit conditions significantly improved plant growth parameters compared to the untreated treatment. Specifically, the PS application enhanced stalk length by 7.48% and green bract by 7.77% relative to the non-treated plants.
The aerial dry weight of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ followed a similar trend across all irrigation levels. A sharp increase was observed from the fully expanded leaf stage (stage II) to the flowering stage (stage III), followed by a moderate increase during the pre-dormancy stage (stage IV) and a gradual decline in the dormancy stage (stage V). Plants receiving 100% ETc consistently exhibited the highest aerial biomass, whereas those subjected to 50% ETc alone and 50% ETc with PS showed no significant differences in aerial dry weight (Figure 2a). Nevertheless, at the fully expanded leaf stage, DI with PS treatment gained aerial dry weight higher than untreated PS by 23.80%.
The underground dry weight increased progressively from stage I to stage V. Plants irrigated with 100% ETc had the highest underground biomass during stages II and III, while no significant difference was observed between 100% ETc and 50% ETc with PS at stage V. Notably, the application of PS under deficit irrigation (50% ETc) resulted in greater underground biomass at dormancy stage by 10.9% compared to plants receiving 50% ETc alone (Figure 2b). DI enhanced water use efficiency (WUE) from the flowering stage to the dormancy stage, with no significant difference observed at the fully expanded leaf stage (Figure 2c). Although the relative growth rate (RGR) was reduced under both deficit treatments, plants receiving PS showed significantly higher RGR at the fully expanded leaf stage and dormancy stage by 15.75% and 6.78%, respectively (Figure 2d).
The distribution of dry weight across plant parts is illustrated in Figure 3a–c. At stage I, the aerial and underground dry weights were relatively balanced, with a greater proportion allocated to the leaves and fibrous roots. Upon entering stage II, all treatments showed a reduction in the proportion allocated to fibrous roots, coinciding with the emergence of contractile roots. During this stage, plants under full irrigation and those receiving 50% ETc with PS allocated 65% and 63% of their biomass to the aerial parts, respectively, while plants receiving 50% ETc alone allocated only 56%. At the flowering stage (stage III), the aerial and underground dry weights stabilized across treatments, maintaining an approximate 60:40 distribution, with the flower accounting for approximately 15% of the total biomass. In stages IV and V, all treatments exhibited a similar pattern of dry weight allocation (Figure 3a–c).

3.2. Photosynthetic Parameters

Reduction of water application in 50% ETc and 50% ETc + PS decreased net photosynthesis (47.32% and 20.19%, respectively), transpiration rate (75.43% and 37.97%, respectively), and stomatal conductance (63.90% and 44.54%, respectively) (Figure 4). Similarly, the result of other parameters, applied with PS, partially relieved stress in ‘Jasmine Pink’. Plant treated with PS showed significantly higher values in A, E, and Gs by 31.53%, 60.32%, and 36.06%, respectively, when compared with the untreated treatment.
Deficit irrigation slightly reduced leaf greenness by approximately 11% of both 50% ETc and 50% ETc + Ps (Table 4). The maximal quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm) did not differ significantly among treatments (p > 0.05), with values ranging from 0.72 to 0.77. The ΔF/Fm′ and ETR were significantly lower in T1 compared to T2 and T3 (p < 0.05). However, the addition of PS in T2 helped maintain PSII function under water deficit, achieving a ΔF/Fm′ and ETR value higher by 13.63% and 9.93%, respectively, comparable to the untreated condition. There is no significant difference in qP among treatments. Nevertheless, non-photochemical quenching (qN) differed significantly among treatments (p < 0.05), with DI with PS treatment could save the qN by 16.51% when compared to untreated PS treatment (Table 5).

4. Discussions

Drought stress in Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ significantly reduced several plant growth parameters, consistent with previous findings that water stress impairs growth, physiological performance, and flower development in Curcuma species [21]. In response to drought, plants undergo a suite of physiological and phenological adaptations, with early responses including the downregulation of stomatal conductance, net photosynthesis, and transpiration as mechanisms to conserve water and maintain turgor [21,35]. Drought also increases membrane permeability and triggers the accumulation of protective compounds such as proline and vitamins C and E, along with the activation of antioxidant enzymes like catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) [36]. Despite these defense responses, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) can damage chloroplasts and promote chlorophyll degradation [37]. Reductions in leaf area further constrain photosynthetic capacity and carbohydrate production, and since carbohydrate reserves peak during flowering [38], such limitations may delay floral bud emergence and reduce overall biomass accumulation.
Notably, Curcuma plants sprayed with 1000 ppm PS demonstrated improved performance in several growth parameters, particularly photosynthetic efficiency. Under deficit irrigation (DI, 50% ETc), PS-treated plants maintained significantly higher values of ΔF/Fm′ and ETR versus untreated controls, indicating enhanced integrity and efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus [39]. This improvement likely results from the multifaceted role of PS. Si from PS accumulates in plant tissues, strengthening cell walls and stabilizing membranes, thereby conferring structural protection to chloroplasts and photosystems during drought [40]. Furthermore, silicon has been shown to strengthen antioxidant enzyme activities, reducing oxidative damage due to drought-induced ROS and safeguarding both the light-harvesting and electron transport components of the photosynthetic machinery [41]. By maintaining PSII photochemistry, PS ensures more efficient utilization of absorbed light energy, as reflected in higher quantum yields and electron transport rates. Thus, PS supplementation not only mitigates the adverse effects of DI but also sustains the functional integrity of the photosynthetic apparatus under sub-optimal irrigation.
In addition, PS-treated Curcuma under DI exhibited significantly lower qN values, indicating reduced dissipation of excess absorbed light as heat. Typically, elevated qN values point to increased energy loss via non-photochemical quenching to safeguard PSII from overexcitation under stress [42]. The reduction in qN suggests more efficient photochemical utilization of light energy and reduced risk of photoinhibition in PS-treated plants [43]. This protective effect is attributed to silicon’s role in reinforcing cellular and chloroplast membranes and enhancing the antioxidant defense system [24]. Accordingly, PS improves the balance between absorption and utilization of light energy, diminishing non-photochemical dissipation and the potential for photodamage.
With respect to biomass allocation, PS treatment under DI shifted dry weight distribution toward greater aerial growth (63% for PS-treated vs. 56% for untreated under 50% ETc), suggesting that PS alleviates water deficit stress, helping maintain shoot growth rather than reallocating resources toward root development, an adaptive strategy under drought [44]. Enhanced allocation to shoots in PS-treated plants may be attributed to improved water status, photosynthetic capacity, and stress tolerance mediated by silicon [45], promoting balanced growth and resilience under restricted irrigation.
Our findings align with prior studies in other species. For instance, in banana (Musa acuminata L.), PS application increased shoot growth, relative leaf water content, chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations, and the activity of key antioxidative enzymes under drought [29]. Similarly, foliar PS applications in maize increased crop yields and water use efficiency under water-limited conditions [46], while PS treatment in onion stabilized cell membranes, boosted relative water content, and enhanced total soluble solids during drought [47]. PS has also reduced salinity stress in marigold by augmenting leaf K+ levels and reducing Na+ uptake [48].
Beyond physiological benefits, PS usage offers practical and economic advantages for off-season ornamental production. PS is relatively inexpensive, widely available, and can be applied via standard foliar sprays, minimizing both equipment and labor costs [49]. By preserving shoot biomass and enhancing photosynthetic efficiency, PS can help reduce production losses, support consistent market supply, and potentially raise profit margins in ornamental horticulture [50].
However, this study was conducted in pots, possibly constraining root systems and influencing water uptake compared to field conditions. Accordingly, field validation is required to confirm the effectiveness of PS in practical Curcuma production. Future research should test different PS application rates to determine the optimal dosage for stress tolerance and growth, and should consider combination treatments with other biostimulants such as seaweed extracts [51], humic substances [52], or beneficial microbes Hafez et al., 2021 [53] to explore potential synergistic effects. These strategies can further optimize sustainable and resilient off-season ornamental production systems.

5. Conclusions

Deficit irrigation at 50% ETc and 50% ETc + PS increased water use efficiency (WUE), but also reduced overall plant growth and flower quality. Nevertheless, the application of PS, compared to DI alone, effectively alleviated water stress in Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, as indicated by improvements in ΔF/Fm′ (13.63%), ETR (9.93%), leaf area (7.48%), flower stalk length (7.77%), green bract (value, 7.77%), and compactness index (8.11%). This suggests that PS can reduce water consumption while maintaining the visual and commercial quality of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, making it a valuable tool for sustainable ornamental production. Notably, the ability of PS to preserve ornamental value under water-limited conditions is especially advantageous for off-season cultivation, potentially enhancing market value and profitability during periods of high demand or water scarcity. To further optimize resource use and cost management, future research should investigate the effects of lower PS doses or reduced application frequency. Overall, the integration of DI and PS emerges as a promising strategy for advancing sustainable practices in ornamental horticulture without sacrificing product quality or aesthetic appeal.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, V.S. and P.H.; Methodology, V.S. and P.H.; Software, V.S.; validation, P.H., A.D. and S.I.N.A.; formal analysis, V.S. and P.H.; investigation, P.H., A.D., S.I.N.A. and S.R.; resource, P.H. and A.D.; data curation, V.S., P.H., S.R. and A.D.; writing—original draft preparation, V.S. and P.H.; writing—reviewing and editing, V.S., P.H., A.D. and S.I.N.A.; visualization, P.H.; supervision, P.H., A.D. and S.I.N.A.; project administration, P.H.; funding acquisition, P.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research project is supported by the Fundamental Fund (FF) of Khon Kaen University (KKU), Fiscal Year 2023, under the Project to Revitalize the Community’s Economy and Society through Innovation by KKU, following the COVID-19 situation. Funding support was obtained from the National Science, Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF): FF KKU 2023_01 for COVID-19.

Data Availability Statement

This study’s original contributions are provided in the article, with further inquiries directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Plant height and canopy (a), and flower quality (b) of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ when the plant received different irrigation levels (50% ETc, 50% ETc + PS, and 100% ETc, respectively).
Figure 1. Plant height and canopy (a), and flower quality (b) of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ when the plant received different irrigation levels (50% ETc, 50% ETc + PS, and 100% ETc, respectively).
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Figure 2. Plant growth pattern and water consumption of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, (a) aerial dry weight, (b) underground part dry weight, (c) water use efficiency and (d) relative growth rate; I = shooting stage (0–35) DAP, II = Fully expanded leaf stage (36–75) DAP, III = Flowering stage (76–115 DAP), IV = pre-dormancy stage (116–145 DAP) and V = Dormancy stage (146–180 DAP); * (significant difference at p < 0.05), ns (not significant).
Figure 2. Plant growth pattern and water consumption of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, (a) aerial dry weight, (b) underground part dry weight, (c) water use efficiency and (d) relative growth rate; I = shooting stage (0–35) DAP, II = Fully expanded leaf stage (36–75) DAP, III = Flowering stage (76–115 DAP), IV = pre-dormancy stage (116–145 DAP) and V = Dormancy stage (146–180 DAP); * (significant difference at p < 0.05), ns (not significant).
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Figure 3. Percentages of dry weight distribution of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, (a) received 50% ETc, (b) received 50% ETc + PS and (c) received 100% ETc, Organ components (d); I = shooting stage (0–35) DAP, II = Fully expanded leaf stage (36–75) DAP, III = Flowering stage (76–115 DAP), IV = pre-dormancy stage (116–145 DAP) and V = Dormancy stage (146–180 DAP).
Figure 3. Percentages of dry weight distribution of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, (a) received 50% ETc, (b) received 50% ETc + PS and (c) received 100% ETc, Organ components (d); I = shooting stage (0–35) DAP, II = Fully expanded leaf stage (36–75) DAP, III = Flowering stage (76–115 DAP), IV = pre-dormancy stage (116–145 DAP) and V = Dormancy stage (146–180 DAP).
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Figure 4. Photosynthesis parameter of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ at fully expanded leaves 75 DAP, (a) Net photosynthetic rate, (b) Transpiration rate, (c) Stomatal conductance; different letters within the sub-figure are significantly different by LSD (p < 0.05).
Figure 4. Photosynthesis parameter of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ at fully expanded leaves 75 DAP, (a) Net photosynthetic rate, (b) Transpiration rate, (c) Stomatal conductance; different letters within the sub-figure are significantly different by LSD (p < 0.05).
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Table 1. Water application of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ in each irrigation level and each growth stage.
Table 1. Water application of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ in each irrigation level and each growth stage.
TreatmentsWater Application (mL pot−1day−1)
Vegetative StageFlowering StagePre-Dormancy Stage
50% ETc80125130
50% ETc + PPA80125130
100% ETc160250260
Table 2. Phenological shift of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, which grows under different irrigation levels.
Table 2. Phenological shift of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, which grows under different irrigation levels.
Phenological Shift (DAP)Irrigation Levels
50% ETc50% ETc + PS100% ETc
Complete expanded leaves73.11±0.86b72.33±0.83b69.44±0.58a
First emergence of floral bud96.89±3.45b90.00±1.15a90.89±2.91a
First bloom of true flower109.00±3.17b104.56±1.45a100.55±0.61a
Fully inflorescent ceasing147.00±1.17a142.78±1.12b139.33±0.77b
Floral display period (DAP) ns38.00±2.60-38.22±0.98-38.78±0.29-
Note: Means ± SE (n = 9), same letters within the row are not significantly different by LSD (p < 0.05). DAP (days after planting), PS (potassium silicate), ETc (evapotranspiration), ns (not significant).
Table 3. Plant growth of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, which grows under different irrigation levels at the flowering stage, or 115 DAP.
Table 3. Plant growth of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’, which grows under different irrigation levels at the flowering stage, or 115 DAP.
ParametersIrrigation Levels
50% ETc50% ETc + PS100% ETc
Height (cm)45.81±0.79b44.93±0.84b49.47±0.80a
Total LF Area (cm2)429.32±8.98c467.22±13.98b621.25±12.41a
Shoot number ns1.44±0.11-1.67±0.19-2.00±0.00-
Leaves number ns6.25±0.07-7.00±0.34-7.53±0.75-
New rhizome number ns1.44±0.11-1.67±0.19-2.00±0.00-
New storage root number8.67±0.57b8.56±0.98b11.11±0.72a
New rhizome size (cm)1.89±0.03a1.87±0.03a1.66 b±0.05b
New storage root size (cm) ns1.36±0.11-1.50±0.04-1.31±0.13-
Total DW (g)10.04±0.17b10.11±0.32b12.73±0.12a
Root/shoot ratio ns1.55±0.03-1.54+0.04-1.65±0.12-
Compactness index (cm2 cm−1)9.38±0.17c10.40±0.21b12.57±0.20a
Note: Means ± SE (n = 9), same letters within the row are not significantly different by LSD (p < 0.05). DAP (days after planting), PS (potassium silicate), ETc (evapotranspiration), LF (leaf), DW (dry weight), ns (not significant).
Table 4. Flower qualities of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ grown under different irrigation levels at the flowering stage or 115 DAP.
Table 4. Flower qualities of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ grown under different irrigation levels at the flowering stage or 115 DAP.
ParametersIrrigation Levels
50% ETc50% ETc + PS100% ETc
Flower number1.33±0.19b1.44±0.25b2.11±0.10a
Stalk length (cm)21.38±0.45c23.11±0.18b24.51±0.20a
Inflorescence length (cm)11.00±0.00b10.83±0.10b12.15±0.02a
Inflorescence diameter (cm)6.56±0.20b6.55±0.19b7.69±0.04a
Coma bract number9.22±0.11b9.443±0.05b11.44±0.19a
Green bract number9.33±0.33b10.11±0.10ab10.77±0.25a
Note: Means ± SE (n = 9), same letters within the row are not significantly different by LSD (p < 0.05). DAP (days after planting), PS (potassium silicate), ETc (evapotranspiration), LF (leaf), DW (dry weight).
Table 5. Leaf greenness of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ leaves and efficiency photosystem II, Fv/Fm = maximal quantum yield of PSII efficiency, ΔF/Fm′ = Effective quantum yield of PSII efficiency, ETR = Electron transport rate, qP = Photochemical Quenching, qN = Non-Photochemical Quenching at flowering stage or 110 DAP.
Table 5. Leaf greenness of Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ leaves and efficiency photosystem II, Fv/Fm = maximal quantum yield of PSII efficiency, ΔF/Fm′ = Effective quantum yield of PSII efficiency, ETR = Electron transport rate, qP = Photochemical Quenching, qN = Non-Photochemical Quenching at flowering stage or 110 DAP.
ParametersIrrigation Levels
50% ETc50% ETc + PS100% ETc
SPAD unit39.70±0.93b39.05±0.45b43.96±0.36a
Fv/Fm ns0.72±0.02-0.77±0.01-0.76±0.01-
ΔF/Fm′0.57±0.01b0.66±0.02a0.66±0.00a
ETR (µmol em−2s−1)229.44±2.14b254.76±5.49a261.27±2.53a
qP ns0.95±0.01-0.98±0.00-0.97±0.01-
qN0.563±0.01a0.47±0.01b0.31±0.00c
Note: Means ± SE (n = 4), same letters within the row are not significantly different by LSD (p < 0.05). DAP (days after planting), PS (potassium silicate), ETc (evapotranspiration), LF (leaf), DW (dry weight), ns (not significant).
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Sour, V.; Dongsansuk, A.; Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya, S.; Ruamrungsri, S.; Hongpakdee, P. Mitigating Water Stress and Enhancing Aesthetic Quality in Off-Season Potted Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ via Potassium Silicate Under Deficit Irrigation. Horticulturae 2025, 11, 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070856

AMA Style

Sour V, Dongsansuk A, Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya S, Ruamrungsri S, Hongpakdee P. Mitigating Water Stress and Enhancing Aesthetic Quality in Off-Season Potted Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ via Potassium Silicate Under Deficit Irrigation. Horticulturae. 2025; 11(7):856. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070856

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sour, Vannak, Anoma Dongsansuk, Supat Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya, Soraya Ruamrungsri, and Panupon Hongpakdee. 2025. "Mitigating Water Stress and Enhancing Aesthetic Quality in Off-Season Potted Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ via Potassium Silicate Under Deficit Irrigation" Horticulturae 11, no. 7: 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070856

APA Style

Sour, V., Dongsansuk, A., Isarangkool Na Ayutthaya, S., Ruamrungsri, S., & Hongpakdee, P. (2025). Mitigating Water Stress and Enhancing Aesthetic Quality in Off-Season Potted Curcuma cv. ‘Jasmine Pink’ via Potassium Silicate Under Deficit Irrigation. Horticulturae, 11(7), 856. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070856

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