Creating Value from Acidogenic Biohydrogen Fermentation Effluents: An Innovative Approach for a Circular Bioeconomy That Is Acquired via a Microbial Biorefinery-Based Framework
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Contribution of this Work to the Scientific Knowledge
2. What Are Acidogenic-Derived VFAs?
3. Types of Feedstocks Used for VFA Production during Acidogenesis
4. The Key Parameters Governing the Recovery of VFAs during Acidogenesis
5. Microbial Biorefinery-Based Processes Involving the Use of Acidogenic VFAs
5.1. Biobased Polymers
5.2. Alternative Fuels
- Electricity—microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are bioelectrochemical reactors that use a wide variety of biofilm-forming microorganisms to harness chemical energy stored in organic wastes for electricity generation [77,78]. These reactor systems consist of an anodic compartment and a cathodic compartment, which are divided by a proton exchange membrane [79]. The anodic compartment is anaerobic so that biofilm-forming communities can effectively convert organic wastes into electrons, protons, and carbon dioxide [80]. These electrons and protons are then transferred into the aerobic cathodic compartment through the means of an electric circuit and proton exchange membrane. In the cathodic chamber, the protons and oxygen combine to generate water. Figure 2 demonstrates the working principles of MFCs with VFA as a model substrate [81]. Equations (1) and (2) show the reactions that occur in the anodic and cathodic chambers, with acetate as a carbon source [82].
- Different MFC designs are used for electricity generation, and these include single-chambered MFCs and two-chambered MFCs, the upflow MFC, and the stacked MFC. These have been detailed by Udama et al. [83] and Ramya and Kumar [81]. The use of acidogenic VFAs could provide many breakthroughs in MFC technology as these compounds can be directly used for bio-electricity generation without the need for pretreatments as opposed to other bioprocesses. Several authors have successfully demonstrated the production of electricity using waste-derived VFAs. For example, Mohanakrishna et al. [84] produced a power density of 111.76 mW/m2 using VFAs obtained from acidogenic fermentation. Asefi et al. [85] achieved an optimum power density of 422 mW/m2 using VFAs from food waste. Microbial characterization studies of the anodic chamber showed the prevalence of Geobacter species which are the predominant bioelectricity-producing microorganisms [85].
- The composition of VFAs in acidogenic effluents has been shown to have a considerable effect on the performance of MFCs during electricity generation. It was reported that the electrical current produced in an acetate fed-MFC was almost two times higher than the electrical current obtained in MFCs fed with other VFA types, resulting in high coulombic efficiency of 93% [86]. Similarly, the acetate-fed-MFC outperformed the butyrate- and propionate-fed MFCs [87]. The 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing results of the anodic biofilms showed the prevalence of Geobacter sp. [87]. It has been shown that acetate is an ideal substrate for electroactive microorganisms due to its biodegradability and stimulatory effects compared to other VFA compounds [88]. Research is ongoing to acquire a deeper understanding of the prevailing bio-electricity anodic biofilms, electron transfer mechanisms, MFC designs, and electrode types to advance this technology.
- Biogas—biogas has received increasing attention over the past two decades due to its high methane content (30–80%), cost-competitiveness, and contribution to the bio-based economy [90]. Biogas occurs in the final step of the anaerobic process, where various bacterial and archaeal species use metabolites (VFAs and CO2) from the acidogenic and acetogenic stages as precursors for biogas formation [91]. Although various microorganisms have been reported in the biosynthesis of biogas, methanogenic species are the predominant species [90]. Biogas can be produced using a single-stage anaerobic process or a two-stage anaerobic process. Single-stage fermentations are not suitable because they generate low biogas content due to variations in the growth requirements of fermentative microorganisms [92]. Two-stage processes produce optimal biogas content because they cater to the growth conditions of different microbial communities. Acidogens are fast-growing species and require acidic pH alongside short HRTs, whereas methanogens are slow-growing species and proliferate under neutral pH and long HRTs [93]. The acidogenic step is used to convert the substrates into VFA-rich effluents, and these are later used by methane-producers in the second step [93]. The co-digestion of food waste and activated sludge was investigated in single-stage and two-stage anaerobic processes under mesophilic conditions. The two-stage process had a remarkable effect on methane content: increased from 61.2% to 70.1% [93]. Two-stage processes are appealing to scientific researchers because they eliminate the pretreatment steps, which are energy-intensive and expensive [94]. More studies are now focusing on biogas-upgrading technologies because these systems can produce high-purity methane (CH4 ≥90% v/v) that is applicable in natural gas pipelines [95].
- Hydrogen—VFAs from dark fermentation (DF) processes are also applicable in other hydrogen-producing technologies such as photo-fermentation (PF) [96], microalgal cultivation [97], electrohydrolysis [98], and microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) [99]. In photo-fermentation, purple non-sulfur bacteria use acidogenic compounds as substrates for hydrogen production [100]. Over the past few years, the coupling of DF and PF has been shown as an innovative approach that could augment the energetic gains in hydrogen production studies [101]. However, precautionary measures need to be applied because the main photosynthetic hydrogen producers, such as Rhodobacter sphaeroides, are fastidious and sensitive to certain growth conditions. For example, the acidogenic effluents consisting of VFAs must undergo vigorous pretreatments such as the removal of colloids, pH adjustment, dilution, and nutrient addition [102]. The types of VFAs found in the DF effluents also impact the growth of these photosynthetic species, as it has been reported that acetate- and propionate-rich effluents have a positive effect on hydrogen production yields compared to other VFA compounds [103]. Two-stage sequential batch processes of DK and PF can produce an overall H2 yield of 12 mols, as shown in Equations (3) and (4) [96]. This hybrid system holds a huge potential in the development of hydrogen-related technologies as some researchers have reported an optimal H2 yield of 10.21 mol H2/mol glucose and a VFA recovery of more than 90% [104,105]. Likewise, the use of microalgae is expanding and gaining recognition in hydrogen process development because these microorganisms are easily accessible and can be cultivated under various conditions [106]. Hybrid processes involving a microalgal consortium are therefore seen as a novel approach to harnessing clean hydrogen. Recent studies are focused on developing genetically engineered strains alongside optimal reactor designs to provide insights that could lead to the scalability of this process [107]. A coupled system of DF and the microalgal process was investigated for biohydrogen using food waste [108]. This integrated process generated a high biohydrogen yield of 133.66 mL/g substrate with almost 100% VFA consumption [108]. The energy conversion efficiency also increased from 10.14–24.06% [108].
- Electrohydrolysis of VFA is another option for producing renewable hydrogen, and this biotechnological route applies direct DC voltage into the VFA-rich effluents, causing the release of electrons from the metal electrodes (e.g., copper electrode), and these combine with protons to form hydrogen [109]. The mechanism of this technology is explained using Equations (5)–(7). This technology is advantageous as it is directly coupled in the anaerobic reactor to enable the endogenous (in-situ) production of hydrogen without the need for the pretreatment of effluents. Hydrogen production by electrohydrolysis of acidogenic VFAs was conducted by Tuna et al. [109]. It was observed that increasing the applied voltage from 1–3 V had a significant effect on H2 production [109]. However, studies that focus on the production of hydrogen by electrohydrolysis of waste-derived VFAs are still scarce in the literature. This implies that there are a lot of knowledge gaps in this area.
- Hydrogen is also produced through the means of a MEC. The MEC is derived from the MFC but slightly differs as it requires an external electricity supply [110]. In the anodic compartment, the electrochemically-active bacteria breakdown the VFAs and release protons and electrons to generate hydrogen in the cathodic compartment [111]. It is only in recent years that the acidogenic VFAs were found to be valuable in MECs. These reactor systems were discovered in the early 2000s by scientists from Wageningen University (The Netherlands) and Penn State University (United States) [112] and have since gained considerable attention among researchers, with some studies reaching pilot-scale [113,114]. A diagram summarizing the use of acidogenic VFAs in other bioprocesses is shown in Figure 3.
Feedstock | Inoculum | Setpoint Conditions | VFA Production | VFA Composition | Reference |
Food waste | Sludge | Temp = 35–55 °C, pH 5.0–6.0, FM = batch, process time = 5 days, | NA | Acetate, butyrate | [20] |
Food waste | Sludge | Temp = 30 °C, pH = 6.0, FM = batch, process time = 15 days, | 0.908 g/g VSremoval | Acetate, butyrate | [115] |
Food waste | Sewage sludge | Temp = 35 °C, pH = 10.0, FM = batch, process time = 35 days | NA | Acetic acid, propionate, butyrate, and valeric acid | [116] |
Waste activated sludge | - | Temp = 35 °C, pH = 10.0, FM = batch, process time = 8 days | 4619.6 mg COD/L | - | [117] |
Waste activated sludge | - | Temp = 35 °C, pH = 6.8, FM = batch, process time = 12 days | 327.8 mg COD/g VS | Acetic acid, butyric acid, valeric acid, and propionic acid | [118] |
OFMSW | Digestate | Temp = 37 °C, pH = 7.0, FM = batch, process time = 180 days | 24.4 g CODVFA/L | Acetic acid, butyric acid, propionic acid, caproic acid, isobutyric acid, isocaproic acid, and isovaleric acid | [119] |
Potato waste | Rumen fluid | Temp = 39 °C, pH = 6.95, FM = batch, process time = 2 days | NA | Acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, iso-valeric acid, and valeric acid | [120] |
Organic waste | Granular sludge | Temp = 55 °C, pH = 7.0, FM = batch, process time = 42 days | NA | Acetic acid, butyric acid | [121] |
Cheese whey | Sludge | Temp = 30 °C, pH = 5.0–6.0, FM = batch, process time = 0.5 day | NA | Butyric acid, propionic acid, and valeric acid | [18] |
- Microbial lipids for biodiesel—biodiesel is an alternative fuel that has received enormous growth over the past two decades, and this technology has reached a pilot scale [122]. It is currently being used as a fuel blend in diesel engines [123]. The majority of the world’s biodiesel is synthesized using lipids extracted from edible crops such as rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, and palm oil [124]. However, this technological route is still being scrutinized by scientists as it disregards the concept of “circular bioeconomy through waste valorization”. The “food vs. fuel” debate has also reinvigorated scientists to search for other sources of feedstocks. It has been proposed that the waste-derived VFAs could play a crucial role in the advancement of biodiesel technologies as these compounds can be used by oleaginous species to produce lipids that are applicable in the transesterification process [125]. Lipids synthesized from waste-derived VFAs have similar fatty acid composition to other well-known biodiesel-producing feedstocks such as jatropha oil and soybean oil [126], making them an attractive feedstock that could compete with the existing carbon-based materials. It was recently reported that the two-stage batch process is the best strategy to obtain the highest lipid content (37% w/w) in microbial lipid synthesis using waste-derived VFAs [127]. Another study demonstrated the production of microbial lipids using VFAs that were obtained from wastepaper [128]. The biomass content achieved from VFAs derived from waste-office paper and the waste newspaper was 4.3 g/L and 2.9 g/L, respectively; the lipid content was 41.2% and 27.7% dry cell weight, respectively [128]. These scientific reports showcase a sustainable, ecologically-friendly, and economical approach to producing microbial lipids using waste-derived VFAs. These findings could serve as a basis upon which further development studies could be carried out in microbial lipid production using waste-derived VFAs.
5.3. Biobased Chemicals
5.4. Wastewater Treatment
5.5. Soil Amelioration
5.6. Nutritional Compounds
6. Recent Progress, Technical Barriers, and Future Outlook in Microbial Biorefineries
The Case of Acidogenic-Based Microbial Systems
Company | Country | Feedstock | Product(s) | Capacity (Tons) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Borregaard | Norway | Woody plants | Cellulose, biovanillin, ethanol | 250,000 |
Alco Bio Fuel | Belgium | Corn and wheat | Ethanol, protein-rich feed, electricity, liquid CO2 | NA |
Tereos | Czech Republic | Molasses | Ethanol | 200,000 to 1,000,000 |
Novozymes | Denmark | Corn | Ethanol | 25,000 |
Pannonia Bio | Hungary | Corn | Ethanol, distillers’ grain, corn oil | 85,000 |
Essentica | Bulgaria | Grain | Ethanol | NA |
Enocell Mill | Finland | Wood | Pulp | 490,000 |
Lantmännen | Sweden | Grain | Ethanol | 200,000 |
Abengoa Bioenergy | France | Corn | Ethanol, biodiesel | NA |
Abengoa Bioenergy | France | Corn | Ethanol, biodiesel | NA |
Crop Energies | Germany | Sugarcane | Ethanol | 750,000 |
7. Economic Aspects Relating to Biohydrogen and Its Associated Products
8. Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research
- It is imperative to acquire deeper insights into the various microbial assemblages when using mixed cultures during the acidogenic biohydrogen fermentations, as this will help in the cultivation of the dominant VFA-producing biocatalysts.
- It is crucial to understand the nutrient-rich substrates alongside the optimal bioprocess conditions (especially the synergistic or antagonistic interactions of these setpoint variables), as this will lead to the optimal VFA recovery.
- Conducting pilot-scale studies using acidogenic VFAs as a sole carbon source will also assist in ascertaining the most suitable process dynamics.
- Acidogenic microbial-based biorefineries could be implemented with newly developed biochemical engineering tools, such as consolidated bioprocessing, in-vitro synthetic biology, and novel enzymes, in order to create biosynthetic pathways that will allow the biomanufacturing of multiple bio-based compounds.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sekoai, P.T.; Chunilall, V.; Ezeokoli, O. Creating Value from Acidogenic Biohydrogen Fermentation Effluents: An Innovative Approach for a Circular Bioeconomy That Is Acquired via a Microbial Biorefinery-Based Framework. Fermentation 2023, 9, 602. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070602
Sekoai PT, Chunilall V, Ezeokoli O. Creating Value from Acidogenic Biohydrogen Fermentation Effluents: An Innovative Approach for a Circular Bioeconomy That Is Acquired via a Microbial Biorefinery-Based Framework. Fermentation. 2023; 9(7):602. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070602
Chicago/Turabian StyleSekoai, Patrick T., Viren Chunilall, and Obinna Ezeokoli. 2023. "Creating Value from Acidogenic Biohydrogen Fermentation Effluents: An Innovative Approach for a Circular Bioeconomy That Is Acquired via a Microbial Biorefinery-Based Framework" Fermentation 9, no. 7: 602. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070602