1. Introduction
Rumen fluid is of unique importance to ruminant nutritional research, due to its vital role as indicator of dietary impact on rumen fermentation characteristics and animal health, as well as the recommended inoculum for in vitro fermentation testing to evaluate the nutritional value of certain feeds. Current rumen fluid collection generally requires invasiveness to animals with rumen fistula or esophageal tubes [
1]. The application of the former is restricted by its high maintenance cost and the latter is not suitable for reduplicative sampling due to laborious immobilization [
2]. These disadvantages have urged researchers to turn to obtaining rumen fluid from abattoirs where animals are sacrificed. However, the slaughterhouse may be located far from the laboratory and long-distance transportation of rumen fluid becomes an unavoidable routine. Therefore, a viable preservation method for rumen fluid appears to be particularly important.
Several methods for the preservation of rumen fluid have been exploited to improve its viability as inoculum for in vitro fermentation testing. The core pursuit of rumen fluid preservation is to retain adequate quality (e.g., microbial activity, physicochemical property) for routine in vitro incubation and subsequently provide reliable assessment of various feedstuffs [
3]. For this purpose, an optimized strategy for rumen fluid preservation has focused on anaerobic environment, proper temperature, cryoprotectants, and freeze-drying. Proper temperature storage, such as refrigerating at 4 °C or on crushed ice, freezing at −20 °C or −80 °C or liquid nitrogen, has shown to be a feasible preservation technique in adopting rumen fluid as inoculum for subsequent in vitro fermentation testing, whilst the appropriate storage time varied with temperature [
3,
4,
5,
6]. Moreover, inconsistent results were also reported in terms of freeze and freeze-drying of rumen fluid, mainly due to decreased in vitro degradation of feeds [
7,
8]. Glycerol and dimethyl sulfoxide are two widely used cryoprotectants in the preservation of rumen fluid, and their addition had positive effect on gas production and volatile fatty acid (VFA) production [
3,
5]. In addition to the above mentioned methods, Fortina et al. [
9] found that rumen fluid could retain its fermentative activity for feed digestibility evaluation for as long as 300 min when the rumen fluid was kept at 40 °C, on the premise of anaerobic conditions. Jones et al. [
10] also revealed that preserving rumen fluid at 18 °C for up to 48 h was viable for in vitro digestibility evaluation. These studies indicate that the feasibility of preserved rumen fluid as inoculum for in vitro incubation may vary with both storage temperature and storage time.
Dynamic variations in physicochemical properties and microbial activity of rumen fluid under short-term preservation were also investigated. Fabro et al. [
2] found similar pH value and VFA concentration when rumen fluid was stored at 4 °C for up to 96 h, whilst prominent differences were observed in the concentration of NH
3-N when the storage time exceeded 48 h. Such higher ammonia concentration was also reported in rumen fluid refrozen and thawed twice at 65 d [
11]. Dehority et al. [
12] reported that the total viable bacterial number and colony counts were comparable when rumen fluid was preserved at 0 °C for 8 h. Martin et al. [
13] examined the physicochemical properties and microbiological viabilities of rumen fluid during a 24-h storage at temperatures varying from −18 °C to 38 °C, and found that storage at 38 °C for up to 9 h or 2 h at ambient temperature showed similar properties and viabilities with fresh rumen fluid. Rumen fluid stored at 4 °C for 7 days still retained high fibrolytic activity and provided adequate organic carbon as substrate for methane fermentation of wastepaper [
14]. However, decreased microbial activity was observed when fresh rumen fluid was defrosted or lyophilized [
15]. Moreover, Fliegerova et al. [
16] revealed that rumen fluid preserved at room temperature and −80 °C did not show significant differences on the sample clustering and quantification of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. These results suggest that the fermentation characteristics and microbial properties of rumen fluid may be influenced by both preservation temperature and preservation time.
In practice, there may be prolonged within-year time delays between rumen fluid collection and initiation of laboratory determination. To the best of our knowledge, no information was available on the fermentation characteristics and bacterial community of rumen fluid preserved as long as 240 d. In this study, the dynamic variations of fermentation characteristics, bacterial diversity and community composition of rumen fluid, preserved at −20 °C and −80 °C during a 240-d process, were investigated to provide recommendations for the feasible determination time for rumen fluid. It was hypothesized that both storage time and storage temperature would influence the aforementioned indicators.
4. Discussion
Rumen NH
3-N is generally considered as an indicator of nitrogen metabolism for both degradation of dietary protein and ruminal utilization for microbial growth and reproduction [
11,
26]. Therefore, the NH
3-N concentration is influenced by dietary protein provision and factors affecting microbial utilization, i.e., microbial activity, rumen environment, and the storage condition. The current study found that NH
3-N concentration was the highest when rumen fluid was stored for 60 days, which is similar to the finding of Nocek et al. [
11], who reported that ammonia content was accentuated after refreezing to 65 days. The possible explanation for the elevation may refer to the microbial proteolysis of protein constituents in rumen fluid. However, decreased NH
3-N concentration was also observed when rumen fluid was preserved for 14 days, which is inconsistent with the result from Baetz Albert et al. [
27], who found stable ammonia concentration after storage at −70 °C for 22 days. The reduction may be due to the volatilization of ammonia because the rumen fluid was not acidified during the whole preservation process. Changes of pH value are expected after preserving for 7 days due to variations in ammonia content, which explained the routine operation of rumen pH value determination, as it is well known that rumen pH value should be concluded immediately after the rumen content was collected. Ruminal MCP is frequently quantitated as an important source of amino acids for ruminants, and its concentration was influenced by dietary nitrogen and carbohydrate, microbial composition and activity [
28]. It is interesting to see continuous decline of MCP before 60 days, reaching the highest at 60 days, thereafter maintaining stability. Freezing may reduce the microbial activity through membrane damage and DNA denaturation [
5], which partly explained the decline of MCP during storage during the first 60 days. As the freeze extended, the protein constituents in rumen fluid were hydrolyzed into ammonia [
11], as well as more energy from carbohydrate degradation, which together contributed to the synthesis of amino acid and further improved the production of MCP. The turning point at 60 days could be indirectly verified by the high concentrations of NH
3-N and total VFA, as well as numerically higher rumen bacterial diversity.
The VFA is the main end product of feed and the primary form of energy utilization for ruminants, playing decisive roles in production efficiency and product quality. The concentration and proportion of VFA were not changed by preservation temperature (−20 °C or −80 °C), whilst they were altered by preservation time over 30 days, apart from propionate proportion. Insoluble substrates (e.g., polysaccharides and protein) in feed residue of rumen fluid were degraded into sugars, VFA, and amino acids during the preservation process [
14]. Moreover, several metabolic processes in cold shock response during refrigeration, for instance, alteration in membrane lipids and synthesis of proteins, would accelerate the sugar metabolism [
2]. Takizawa et al. [
14] found that the concentration of VFA in rumen fluid increased during the first two days of preservation. The aforementioned findings and theories supported the varied concentration and proportion of VFA during the refrigeration process, which corresponded well with the increase in ammonia concentration. Another possible explanation for the higher VFA concentration would be the fact that damaged microbes due to freezing could serve as additional substrate for more VFA production [
3]. Preservation temperature of rumen fluid is also a decisive factor for VFA variation. A previous study has reported that VFA concentration in rumen fluid was stable when it was stored at 4 °C, whilst increased VFA concentration was observed when the rumen fluid was stored at 20 °C or 35 °C [
14]. In this study, no differences in concentrations of VFA were observed between preservation temperature at −20 °C and −80 °C, probably because the rumen fluid was in a frozen state at these two temperatures and showed similar cold shock response to temperature [
2].
Rumen microbes play critical roles in dietary nutrient digestion, production efficiency, and body health of ruminants. Most studies reported that exhaustion of insoluble and soluble substrates in rumen fluid alters the microbial community and reduces microbial activity during the process of freezing [
3,
14]. Changes in microbial community included decreased protozoa count, protozoa viability, and Gram-negative bacteria amount [
3,
13,
14,
18], whereas the effects of freezing condition on microbial diversity and specific bacterial species are limited. Here, we tracked the dynamic changes in bacterial diversity and community composition as the storage time extended at two freezing temperatures. Bacterial alpha-diversity results showed that differences in bacterial richness and evenness caused by the preservation temperature and preservation time were small, and beta-diversity data also revealed similarities among treatments. These results might be attributable to the microbial self defense mechanism when encountering environmental stress, such as altering bacterial density and community structure via quorum sensing to maintain stability [
29,
30]. The explanation could be indirectly seen from the dynamic community composition at the levels of phylum and genus due to storage time, as the predominate two phyla, Bacteroidota and Firmicutes, showed numerically higher and lower relative abundances when rumen fluid was stored at 30 days, respectively. Most Bacteroidota are Gram-negative bacteria and this type of bacteria showed particular sensitivity to freezing [
18]. Qiu et al. [
21] reported negative correlation between ambient temperature and Bacteroidetes abundance, and the opposite correlation for the phylum Firmicutes. This study observed similar results, probably due to the adaptive capacity of Bacteroidota and Firmicutes to the ambient temperature system [
31]. The genus of
Prevotella is considered to be particularly active in fermenting starch and protein metabolism [
32]. The higher abundance of this genus at 30 days normally indicates higher VFA production and ammonia concentration at that time point. However, these increments were only observed at 60 days, which might be due to the fact that rumen fermentation characteristics were not consequentially in accordance with the rumen bacterial community [
33]. Previous studies have revealed that rumen fermentation characteristics required less time to achieve stability than the rumen bacterial community [
34]. However, delayed rumen fermentation characteristics due to bacterial abundance was observed in the current study, suggesting that dietary type may affect the crosstalk between fermentation characteristics and bacterial community.
Ruminococcus flavefaciens and
Ruminococcus albus, two core species belonging to the genus of
Ruminococcus, are critical members for degrading the plant cell wall in the rumen community [
35]. Higher abundance of
Ruminococcus was observed in D240, partly due to the fact that structural carbohydrates are slowly fermentable organic compounds as compared to nonstructural carbohydrates [
36]. It is worth mentioning that microbial activity and microorganisms other than bacteria were not determined in this experiment. A long-term and more comprehensive tracking of the rumen microbe, i.e., bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, is required to decide the flexible time for rumen microbe determination, as well as the viable inoculum for the in vitro fermentation test.