Histoplasmosis in Children; HIV/AIDS Not a Major Driver
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mycology Summary
3. Materials and Methods
4. Results
5. Discussion
5.1. Pulmonary Histoplasmosis and TB
5.2. Cancers
5.3. Lung Diseases
5.4. Environmental Exposure
5.5. Malnutrition
5.6. Organ Transplant
5.7. Autoimmune Diseases/Steroid Therapy
5.8. Pancytopaenia/Defective Phagocytic Function
5.9. Tumor Necrosis Factors Inhibitors
5.10. Syndromes (Hyperimmunoglobulin E Syndrome, Hyperimmunoglobulin M Syndrome)
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Country | n | −HIV | +HIV | Hcc | Hcd | Factors Other than HIV (Number) | None | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NORTH AMERICA | ||||||||
Canada | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | LD (1) | - | [30] |
* Colombia | 73 | 69 | 4 | 25 | - | Leu/Can (5), OT (2), TNFi (1), EE (9), Mal (10) | 42 | [6,7,31,32,33,34] |
* Costa Rica | 84 | 84 | - | - | - | EE (44), TD (20), HIg (10) | 10 | [35,36] |
Ecuador | 38 | 14 | 24 | 37 | - | HIg (1) | 13 | [37,38,39] |
Jamaica | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | [40] |
* Mexico | 89 | 85 | 4 | 15 | - | AIC (3) | 82 | [41,42,43,44] |
Trinidad | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | [45] |
* USA | 944 | 940 | 4 | 296 | - | LD (5), Mal (1), EE (163), OT (6), HIg (3), Leu/Can (198), Pan (22), IRD (1), TNFi (6), AIC (8), HLH (3), Steroids (2), TD (1) | 521 | [17,21,22,25,26,27,28,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116] |
Total | 1231 | 1192 | 39 | 376 | - | 525 | 668 | |
SOUTH AMERICA | ||||||||
* Argentina | 50 | 50 | - | 11 | - | EE (1) | 49 | [117,118,119] |
* Brazil | 27 | 26 | 1 | 5 | - | EE (5), Leu/Can (2), OT (1), SLE/Steroids (1), DM (1) | 16 | [120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128] |
Guyana | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | OT | - | [129] |
* Venezuela | 57 | 57 | - | - | - | - | 57 | [130] |
Total | 135 | 134 | 1 | 16 | - | 12 | 122 | |
# EUROPE | ||||||||
Germany | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 | [18] |
Portugal | 1 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | [19] |
Spain | 2 | 2 | - | - | - | Pan (2) | - | [20] |
Total | 4 | 4 | - | - | 1 | 2 | 2 | |
AFRICA | ||||||||
Burkinafaso | 3 | 3 | - | - | 3 | - | 3 | [131,132] |
Cameroon | 1 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | [133] |
CAR | 1 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | [134] |
Chad | 1 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | [135] |
Congo | 26 | 26 | - | - | 26 | - | 26 | [136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145] |
Cote d′voire | 4 | 3 | 1 | - | 4 | - | 3 | [146,147,148] |
Gambia | 3 | 3 | - | - | 3 | - | 3 | [149] |
Guinea-Bissau | 1 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | [150] |
Kenya | 2 | 2 | - | 2 | - | - | 2 | [151] |
Mali | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | EE | - | [152] |
Nigeria | 13 | 13 | - | 2 | 7 | Leu/Can (2), Mal (1), OT (1) | 9 | [153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161] |
South Africa | 5 | 5 | - | 2 | - | EE (1) | 4 | [23,162,163,164,165] |
Tanzania | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 | [166] |
Togo | 1 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | [167] |
Uganda | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | - | MC | - | [168] |
Zaire | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | [169] |
Total | 65 | 64 | 1 | 8 | 48 | 7 | 57 | |
ASIA | ||||||||
China | 9 | 8 | 1 | 1 | - | - | 8 | [170,171,172] |
Georgia | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 | [173] |
India | 5 | 5 | - | 4 | - | Pan (1) | 4 | [24,174,175,176,177] |
Israel | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | - | LD | - | [178] |
Malaysia | 7 | 7 | - | 1 | - | Pan (1) | 6 | [179,180] |
Pakistan | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | [181] |
Thailand | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | OT | - | [182] |
Turkey | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | - | HIg | - | [183] |
Total | 26 | 25 | 1 | 9 | - | 5 | 20 | |
Grand total | 1461 | 1419 | 42 | 409 | 49 | 551 | 869 |
Factors | Number of Cases | % |
---|---|---|
Environmental exposure | 224 | 15.8 |
Leukaemia/Cancers | 207 | 14.6 |
Pancytopaenia | 26 | 1.8 |
T cell deficiency | 21 | 1.5 |
Hyperimmunoglobulinemia | 15 | 1.1 |
Organ transplant | 12 | 0.8 |
Malnutrition | 12 | 0.8 |
Tumour necrosing factor inhibitors | 7 | 0.5 |
Lung diseases | 7 | 0.5 |
Autoimmune conditions (SLE, Rheumatoid arthritis) | 11 | 0.8 |
hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis | 3 | 0.2 |
Steroids | 3 | 0.14 |
Interferon-gamma Receptor 1 Deficiency | 1 | 0.07 |
Mesenteric cyst | 1 | 0.07 |
Diabetes mellitus | 1 | 0.07 |
Total | 551 | 38.8% |
Authors | Case Patients (n) | Age/Sex/Country | Non-HIV Factors | Clinical Findings | Diagnostic Method | Treatment and Clinical Course | OC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hess et al., 2017 | 1 | 11-year-old/Male/USA | T-cell ALL | fever, malaise, and weight loss | CT scan: mediastinal adenopathy. Bone marrow: pancytopenia, noncaseating granulomas. Urine and serum histoplasma antigen was positive. Histology of bone marrow aspirate was in keeping with DH | AmB therapy. Histoplasma antigen in urine and serum was undetected after 3 months of therapy. | R |
Tu et al., 1991 | 2 | 3-year-old/Male/USA | hyper-lgM syndrome | fever, nausea, vomiting, stomatitis of the gingiva, abdominal pain, fatigue, and irritability. | Disseminated histoplasmosis was diagnosed by bone marrow biopsy and culture of esophageal biopsy | Amphotericin B therapy | NR |
Yilmaz et al., 1995 | 3 | 3-year-old/Male/Turkey | Hyper-IgM syndrome | Recurrent pulmonary infections, ulcerated lesion of about 10 cm on the left side of the face | IgM, 1380 mg/dl. Chest radiograph showed bilateral infiltration and bronchiectasis. Biopsy of skin lesion revealed intracellular yeast cells | ketoconazole 10 mg/kg/day, with immunoglobulin therapy | R |
Hess et al., 2017 | 4 | 14-Year-old/Male/USA | Desmoplastic small round cell tumor of the abdomen | Persistent fever and neutropenia | Chest CT demonstrated a solitary calcified lung nodule. Histoplasma serology became positive with increasing titers of histoplasmosis yeast by complement fixation from 1:16 to 1:32. Diagnosis was pulmonary histoplasmosis | Itraconazole, Posaconazole and AmB were used for therapy | NR |
Tschudy et al., 2010 | 5 | 8-year-old/Male/USA | Crohn Disease/Infliximab therapy | fevers, cough, anorexia, and night sweats. | Urine histoplasma antigen test: positive. Fungal culture grew Histoplasma capsulatum from lymph node biopsy. Histoplasmosis antibodies to both yeast and mycelia returned elevated (1:1024 yeast and 1:16 mycelia). | Itraconazole (6 mg/kg/day, divided twice per day) | R |
Zerbe et al., 2005 | 6 | 3 years and 8 months/Male/USA | Interferon-g Receptor 1 Deficiency | Recurrent fever, hepatosplenomegaly, left cervical adenopathy | Bronchoscopic washings, a sputum specimen, and a bone marrow aspirate all grew H. capsulatum. Genetic studies showed 818del4 deletion in IFNGR1, which leads to autosomal dominant IFN-gamma receptor deficiency | Subcutaneous treatment with IFN-gamma (50 µg/m2) was given 3 times/week. Oral ketoconazole therapy | R |
Hess et al., 2017 | 7 | 6-year-old/Male/USA | B-Cell ALL | nonspecific fever | Blood culture was positive for Histoplasma capsulatum. Chest CT: right hilar adenopathy. Antigenuria and antigenemia were confirmed. Diagnosis was DH | AmB for 14 days followed by itraconazole. | R |
Hess et al., 2017 | 8 | 8-year-old/Male/USA | Stage II abdominal Burkitt lymphoma | Fever and neutropenia | Histoplasma serology was positive. Diagnosis was pulmonary histoplasmosis. | Itraconazole therapy | R |
Ferguson-Pau et al., 2018 | 9 | 18-year-old/ Female/ USA | Kidney transplant | Fever, chest pain, weight loss, malaise, headache, and myalgias post-renal transplant | Urine histoplasma antigen was positive at 10.69 ng/mL | Itraconazole therapy | R |
Ferguson-Pau et al., 2018 | 10 | 16-year- old/Female/USA | Kidney transplant | Fever, vomiting, diarrhea and weight loss. | Pericardial fluid and bronchoalveolar lavage were histoplasma antigen-positive. Both serum and urine histoplasma antigens were positive above the upper limit of quantification. | Amb initially and Itraconazole thereafter | LTF |
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Ekeng, B.E.; Edem, K.; Amamilo, I.; Panos, Z.; Denning, D.W.; Oladele, R.O. Histoplasmosis in Children; HIV/AIDS Not a Major Driver. J. Fungi 2021, 7, 530. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7070530
Ekeng BE, Edem K, Amamilo I, Panos Z, Denning DW, Oladele RO. Histoplasmosis in Children; HIV/AIDS Not a Major Driver. Journal of Fungi. 2021; 7(7):530. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7070530
Chicago/Turabian StyleEkeng, Bassey E., Kevin Edem, Ikechukwu Amamilo, Zachary Panos, David W. Denning, and Rita O. Oladele. 2021. "Histoplasmosis in Children; HIV/AIDS Not a Major Driver" Journal of Fungi 7, no. 7: 530. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7070530