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Article

Radioactive Contaminants in Edible Mushrooms: A Comparative Study of 137Cs and Natural Radionuclides in Amasya and Tekirdağ, Türkiye

by
Afife Akkaya
and
Sinan Aktaş
*
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Selçuk University, 42250 Konya, Turkey
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Fungi 2025, 11(5), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050351
Submission received: 27 March 2025 / Revised: 19 April 2025 / Accepted: 29 April 2025 / Published: 1 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Ecological Interactions of Fungi)
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Abstract

:
Mushrooms are a significant component of human diets but can bioaccumulate hazardous substances, including both anthropogenic (137Cs) and naturally occurring (238U, 232Th, and 40K) radionuclides. This study quantified these radionuclides in 24 commonly consumed mushroom species collected in Amasya and Tekirdağ, provinces of Türkiye. Using a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector, we found 137Cs activity in the Tekirdağ samples ranging from 3.9 to 127.8 Bq/kg, while the 137Cs activity in the Amasya samples ranged from 3.1 to 63.7 Bq/kg. In particular, Tricholoma terreum (Tekirdağ) and Tricholoma imbricatum (Amasya) exhibited notably higher 137Cs concentrations. The concentration of 238U varied between 4.8 and 17.5 Bq/kg in the Tekirdağ samples and 6.5 and 16 Bq/kg in the Amasya samples, whereas the 232Th and 40K values fluctuated across species and regions, with 40K sometimes exceeding 1900 Bq/kg. These results highlight that mushrooms can serve as effective bioindicators for residual radioactive contamination and underline the need for periodic monitoring to assess potential public health risks associated with wild mushroom consumption. These findings also offer a valuable dataset for understanding post-Chernobyl fallout dynamics in the forest ecosystems of Türkiye.

1. Introduction

Edible mushrooms, particularly those with epigeous (above-ground) fruiting bodies, have played an important role in human diets throughout history [1]. Approximately 2500 edible mushroom species are known worldwide [2], and mushroom cultivation is widespread in many countries, leading to an increase in both the consumption and study of edible fungi [3,4]. While mushrooms offer nutritional and economic benefits, environmental pollution may cause them to accumulate hazardous substances that pose potential health risks for consumers [5].
In particular, long-lived radionuclides in the environment may contribute to serious problems, including genetic mutations and an increased risk of cancer [6]. The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident raised global awareness about radioactive contamination and its ecological impacts [7,8]. Mushrooms represent one of the largest biomass components in forest ecosystems, where they can accumulate not only heavy metals but also naturally occurring and artificial radionuclides [9]. This capacity for accumulation is closely tied to their extensive mycelial networks in soil, making them effective bioindicators [3,10,11].
Among the artificial radionuclides of major concern is cesium-137 (137Cs), which can persist for decades due to its physical half-life of about 30 years [12,13]. Nuclear weapon tests conducted in the 1950s–1960s, as well as nuclear accidents such as Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011), have released 137Cs into the environment. Additionally, mushrooms can naturally contain 40K (potassium-40), 232Th (thorium-232), and 238U (uranium-238), which they uptake from soil and further introduce into the food chain [2]. Potassium (K), which is essential for cell-volume regulation and pH maintenance, is actively taken up by mushrooms; hence, 40K often remains relatively constant in mushroom tissues [14,15,16]. Because 137Cs behaves similarly to K, it can be readily absorbed by mushroom tissue.
Following the Chernobyl accident, numerous studies demonstrated that 137Cs and related radionuclides can persist in forest soils for extended periods [17,18]. Mushrooms’ direct interaction with soil and their mycelial architecture allow these isotopes to concentrate in mushroom fruiting bodies, which are frequently consumed by humans and wildlife [19,20]. As a result, the regular ingestion of mushrooms with elevated radionuclide levels could increase the risk of internal exposure [12,21].
Given that radiation can arise from both natural (e.g., 238U, 232Th, 40K) and artificial (e.g., 137Cs) sources [22,23,24], understanding their combined presence in commonly consumed mushrooms is critical. Therefore, this study focuses on determining the activity concentrations of 137Cs and natural radionuclides (238U, 232Th, and 40K) in edible mushroom samples collected in Amasya and Tekirdağ, provinces of Türkiye. We also explore how different species and localities may exhibit varying bioaccumulation potentials. The findings provide valuable data for evaluating potential radiological health risks associated with mushroom consumption and underscore the importance of mushrooms as bioindicators for ecosystem monitoring. The radionuclides studied in this research emit different types of ionizing radiation. Cs-137 and K-40 emit beta and gamma radiation, while U-238 and Th-232 are alpha emitters. Gamma radiation can penetrate biological tissues and pose both internal and external risks. In contrast, alpha particles are less penetrating but highly damaging when inhaled or ingested. Understanding the radiation types and biological risks associated with each isotope is essential for evaluating their environmental and health implications [16].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Areas

Amasya is located in the central Black Sea region of Türkiye, between latitudes 41°04′54″ and 40°16′16″ N and longitudes 34°57′06″ and 36°31′53″ E. The area features a transitional Black Sea climate with moderate precipitation levels.
Tekirdağ is situated in the Thracian part of the Marmara Region (40°36′–41°31′ N, 26°43′–28°08′ E). The climate is largely Mediterranean along the coast, whereas inland areas experience partly continental conditions.

2.2. Sampling and Sample Preparation

Field surveys were conducted in 2019 in Taşova District (Amasya) and Saray District (Tekirdağ). A total of 24 commonly consumed macrofungal species were collected from each region (Table 1). During collection, visible soil and plant debris were carefully removed from the mushroom samples, and the specimens were placed into sterile bags, labeled, and transported to the laboratory. Species identification was performed by Dr. Sinan AKTAŞ according to standard taxonomic keys.
In addition to mushroom sampling, soil samples were taken from each region at depths of 20–30 cm to determine background radionuclide levels. In the laboratory, mushroom samples were dried at 40–60 °C for three days in a drying oven (etüv). The dried samples were then homogenized using a grinder to ensure uniform particle size.

2.3. Preparation of Mushroom Samples and Determination of Radioactivity Content

After drying, the mushroom samples were ground, and sieving was conducted to ensure a uniform particle size. Next, the processed samples were placed into transparent polystyrene containers (6 cm in diameter; 5 cm in height) fitted with white screw caps. The containers were tightly sealed and secured with Parafilm® to prevent any exchange of moisture. Subsequently, they were stored for one month to allow for radioactive equilibrium between the decay products of 238U and 232Th. Once the storage period was completed, each sample was measured for 50,000 s using a high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector. The acquired spectra were analyzed, and the activity concentrations of the radionuclides were calculated.
The specific activity (A) for each radionuclide was calculated using the following equation:
A = N e t   P e a k   A r e a C o u n t i n g   T i m e × S a m p l e   M a s s × A b u n d a n c e × D e t e c t o r   E f f i c i e n c y
Radioactivity analyses were performed using a multi-channel gamma spectrometer at the Central Research Laboratory of Kastamonu University. Gamma spectroscopic measurements were carried out with an ORTEC GEM50P4-83 high-purity coaxial germanium detector featuring an energy resolution of 1.9 keV at 1332.5 keV and 50% relative efficiency. The detector setup comprised a preamplifier, a spectroscopy amplifier, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) system, and a multi-channel analyzer (MCA) [25].
Since accurate analysis of the collected spectra requires knowledge of which channels correspond to specific energies, energy calibration was performed using the spectrum of a standard source placed at a fixed distance from the detector. A multi-nuclide standard reference source (or sources) with known emission lines was utilized. For energy and efficiency calibration, point sources containing 109Cd, 57Co, 133Ba, 22Na, 137Cs, 54Mn, and 60Co, covering energies from 80 keV to 1400 keV, were used. Table 2 summarizes the primary characteristics of the calibration source [26].

3. Results

3.1. Radionuclide Activity Concentrations in Tekirdağ Samples

Table 3 presents the activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs measured in the edible mushroom samples collected in the Tekirdağ region. According to these data, the 40K activity was notably higher than that of the other radionuclides in most mushroom species. Moreover, the presence of the artificial isotope 137Cs was observed in all samples. Given that 137Cs has a physical half-life of 30.17 years, its continued detection suggests residual contamination likely stemming from nuclear fallout, including the Chernobyl accident [1].
In the Tekirdağ samples, 238U ranged between 4.8 and 17.5 Bq/kg, 232Th ranged between 1.3 and 11.9 Bq/kg, 40K ranged between 287.4 and 1940.9 Bq/kg, and 137Cs ranged between 3.9 and 127.8 Bq/kg. Notably, the highest 137Cs level (127.8 Bq/kg) was recorded in Tricholoma terreum, while Amanita caesarea exhibited the lowest 137Cs concentration (3.9 Bq/kg). These findings highlight significant variability among mushroom species, reflecting differences in both their physiological accumulation capacity and local environmental conditions.
The soil sample from the Tekirdağ site showed activity concentrations of 19.2 Bq/kg for 238U, 7.2 Bq/kg for 232Th, 362.6 Bq/kg for 40K, and 2.3 Bq/kg for 137Cs, which are generally lower or comparable to previously reported values in similar regions [2].
Figure 1 illustrates the 137Cs activity concentrations for the Tekirdağ samples by species. Tricholoma terreum and Hydnum repandum stand out with relatively higher 137Cs levels, indicating a pronounced capacity to accumulate cesium. Such inter-species differences can be attributed to distinct ecological strategies, mycelial depth, and potassium/cesium ion exchange mechanisms [3].

3.2. Radionuclide Activity Concentrations in Amasya Samples

Table 4 summarizes the activities of 238U, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs for mushroom samples from the Amasya region. The measured 137Cs activity ranged between 3.1 and 63.7 Bq/kg, with the highest level (63.7 Bq/kg) recorded in Tricholoma imbricatum. Meanwhile, the soil sample averaged about 23.1 Bq/kg for 137Cs, indicating that local contamination from artificial sources persists in this area. In comparison, 238U activity ranged from 6.5 to 16 Bq/kg, 232Th activity ranged from 1.3 to 5.7 Bq/kg, and 40K activity ranged from 224.7 to 2048.5 Bq/kg.
Figure 2 shows the distribution of 137Cs concentrations in the Amasya samples. Similar to the Tekirdağ samples, there is substantial variation among species. For instance, Hydnum repandum and Ganoderma applanatum typically exhibited moderate 137Cs levels, whereas Tricholoma imbricatum showed a notably higher uptake. Such differences may arise from varying ecological niches, local soil composition, and the mycelial network’s penetration depth [3].

3.3. Comparison of Common Species

Table 5 compares the 238U, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs activity concentrations (Bq/kg) found in common mushroom species collected in the Amasya and Tekirdağ Provinces. Notably, Macrolepiota procera from Tekirdağ displayed higher 238U (11.9 ± 0.4 Bq/kg) and 137Cs (18.2 ± 0.4 Bq/kg) activity concentrations compared to the same species in Amasya (1.3 ± 0.1 Bq/kg for 238U and 3.1 ± 0.1 Bq/kg for 137Cs). This discrepancy may reflect differences in the local soil uranium content and residual fallout levels. Similarly, Lactarius deliciosus and Hydnum repandum also presented divergent radionuclide profiles when sampled from each region.
To assess the statistical significance of these discrepancies, Student’s t-test (for two groups) or one-way ANOVA (for more than two groups) was applied to the mean activity concentrations, considering p < 0.05 an indicator of significance. Marked differences emerged, particularly for 137Cs and 40K, between the two localities in some species, suggesting that both environmental factors (soil chemistry, altitude, and climate) and species-specific uptake mechanisms contribute to variations [4,6].

3.4. Additional Radionuclides and Visual Representations

Figure 3 and Figure 4 show the concentrations of 232Th in Tekirdağ and Amasya, respectively, while Figure 5 and Figure 6 present the 238U distributions. As both 232Th and 238U largely derive from soil origins, differences among mushroom species mainly arise from their varying accumulation capabilities and local soil conditions. Figure 7 and Figure 8 illustrate the 40K data, indicating that potassium, an essential element for fungal physiology, typically shows higher activity levels. Notably, the 40K content often surpasses that of other radionuclides in many mushroom samples, aligning with the literature suggesting that mushrooms tightly regulate potassium [7,8,9].

3.5. Comparison with International Studies on 137Cs in Mushrooms

A broader comparison with international studies is given in Table 6, demonstrating that 137Cs activity in mushrooms can vary substantially across different countries, including Italy, Slovakia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Brazil, and Bulgaria. Seemingly, post-Chernobyl radioactive fallout is still detectable in numerous forest ecosystems worldwide [10,11,27]. Our findings of 137Cs levels in Tekirdağ and Amasya (3.1–127.8 Bq/kg) lie within or slightly below the ranges reported in other countries with historical nuclear deposition [12,28]. Notably, Southeastern Turkey appears to be less impacted by 137Cs, aligning with historical transport patterns of radioactive clouds after the Chernobyl accident [14,15].

4. Discussion

Mushrooms are among the most significant components of forest ecosystems and thus play a key role in studies on the distribution of radioactive elements [3]. Similar to minerals, mushrooms can bind and redistribute radionuclides, which may lead to radiation exposure in humans and animals that consume them. While the radiation to which humans are exposed can derive from both natural (e.g., 40K, 238U, 232Th) and artificial (e.g., 137Cs) sources, the present study focused on naturally abundant radionuclides (40K, 238U, 232Th) and the artificial radionuclide 137Cs in edible mushroom species. We further compared species- and region-specific differences between the Tekirdağ and Amasya Provinces.

4.1. 40K and 137Cs in Tekirdağ Versus Amasya

As shown in Table 3, the mushroom samples from Tekirdağ generally exhibited higher 40K activity than the other radionuclides measured. At the same time, the presence of artificial 137Cs was observed in all samples, suggesting that residual contamination from the 1986 Chernobyl accident remains relevant even decades later [8]. Despite 137Cs having a physical half-life of about 30 years, its detectability in mushrooms indicates that environmental factors—such as altitude and precipitation—continue to redistribute this radionuclide in forested areas [18]. High-elevation sites often receive more rainfall, which can deposit greater amounts of fallout, thereby elevating 137Cs concentrations in the mushrooms growing there.
The Amasya data (Table 4) indicated that the 137Cs activity in soil was approximately an order-of-magnitude higher than in Tekirdağ. However, no significant differences were noted between the two regions’ soils with respect to 232Th, 238U, and 40K levels. The mean 40K activity in Amasya samples (1158.14 Bq/kg) was slightly higher than in Tekirdağ (1083.66 Bq/kg). Overall, the Tekirdağ mushrooms had higher average concentrations of 238U, 232Th, and 137Cs, whereas the Amasya mushrooms displayed somewhat higher 40K concentrations, potentially reflecting differences in local geology, past fallout deposition patterns, and fungal bioaccumulation capacities [9].

4.2. Interregional Comparisons of Common Species

Table 5 compares the radionuclide activities of common species from both regions. For instance, Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer in Amasya displayed an activity of 6.5 ± 0.2 Bq/kg for 238U, whereas the same species in Tekirdağ reached 11.9 ± 0.4 Bq/kg. Such discrepancies could be attributed to a higher 238U content in Tekirdağ’s soil or to a species-specific accumulation mechanism. Similarly, the 232Th activity in the Amasya samples measured 1.3 ± 0.1 Bq/kg, whereas it reached 7.7 ± 0.2 Bq/kg in the Tekirdağ samples. Meanwhile, the 137Cs concentration in M. procera ranged from 3.1 ± 0.1 Bq/kg in the Amasya samples to 18.2 ± 0.4 Bq/kg in the Tekirdağ samples, which is consistent with the idea that Tekirdağ may have experienced greater residual fallout [6]. Other common species, such as Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Gray and Hydnum repandum (L.), also exhibited different 238U, 232Th, and 137Cs levels across regions. These differences in radionuclide accumulation may result from a combination of soil composition and fungal physiology. For example, variations in cation exchange capacity, organic matter, and fungal ion transport specificity can all influence the observed species- and region-dependent uptake [9,16].
An alternative hypothesis could be that in Amasya, radionuclides remain concentrated in the topsoil due to lower leaching, whereas in Tekirdağ, higher rainfall or different soil texture may allow these isotopes to migrate deeper. Consequently, fungi with deeper mycelial systems (e.g., Macrolepiota procera) may access and accumulate more radionuclides in Tekirdağ, while surface-colonizing fungi accumulate more in Amasya. Future studies including vertical soil profiling would help validate this hypothesis.

4.3. Detailed Observations on 137Cs, 232Th, and 238U

Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of 137Cs activity in the Tekirdağ samples, ranging from 3.9 to 127.8 Bq/kg. Tricholoma terreum (Schaeff.) P. Kumm had the highest concentration (127.8 Bq/kg), while Amanita caesarea (Scop.) Pers recorded the lowest (3.9 Bq/kg). This wide variation underscores the distinct bioaccumulation capacities among fungal taxa [14,15]. In Amasya (Figure 2), the 137Cs concentration ranged from 3.1 to 63.7 Bq/kg, with Tricholoma imbricatum (Fr.) P. Kumm reaching about 63.7 Bq/kg. Similar findings of high cesium uptake in Tricholoma species have been reported [33]. Multiple factors—such as mycelial depth, habitat, forest type, clay content, pH, and microclimate—can influence 137Cs accumulation [8,30]. Atmospheric events like rainfall or snowfall may further increase local radioactivity levels [2].
As for 232Th (Figure 3 and Figure 4) in Tekirdağ, values ranged between 1.3 and 11.9 Bq/kg, with Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. achieving the highest value at 11.9 Bq/kg and Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Gray the lowest at 1.3 Bq/kg. The 238U concentrations in Tekirdağ (4.8–17.5 Bq/kg) also varied significantly among species, whereas the soil measured 19.2 Bq/kg (Figure 5). Similarly, in Amasya (Figure 6), 238U peaked at 16 Bq/kg in T. imbricatum, further confirming that both the local soil composition and specific fungus physiology govern accumulation patterns [2].
In this study, 137Cs was treated as a purely anthropogenic radionuclide resulting from nuclear accidents, while 238U, 232Th, and 40K were considered part of the natural geogenic background. This classification enables an indirect but effective source attribution framework [2].

4.4. 40K Accumulation and Homeostasis

Figure 7 and Figure 8 reveal that 40K dominates the total radionuclide profile in many samples, with measured values frequently falling in the 1000–2000 Bq/kg range. Because potassium is vital for cellular functions (e.g., osmotic balance, pH regulation), mushrooms have well-developed homeostatic systems for potassium uptake [8,16,34]. Hence, the 40K content in mushroom tissues can exceed that in the corresponding soil, as also noted in prior investigations [35].
Mushrooms possess specialized potassium transporters and Na+/H+ antiporters that enable them to maintain high intracellular K+ concentrations even in fluctuating environmental conditions. This homeostasis explains the consistently high levels of K-40 in mushroom tissues and reflects selective ion uptake mechanisms [16,34].

4.5. Comparisons with Other Regions and the “Chernobyl Fallout” Map

Correlating our findings with data from other countries (Figure 9, Table 6) suggests that 137Cs levels in mushrooms from Italy, Slovakia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Brazil, Bulgaria, and certain regions of Türkiye remain relatively high due to historical nuclear releases [2,17,18,19,20,27,29,30,31,32]. In Figure 9, we present a map showing the “Chernobyl fallout” zone, illustrating how the accident’s radioactive plume affected several parts of Europe, including areas of Türkiye. According to studies by Türkekul et al. [30], 137Cs activity tends to be higher in the Black Sea coastal areas than in inland regions of Türkiye, following weather and transport patterns at the time of the accident [6,7]. Even though Türkiye was less impacted by the Chernobyl plume than some Eastern European countries, localized elevated 137Cs remains evident in mountainous or high-precipitation environments.

4.6. Concluding Remarks

Overall, our data suggest that 238U and 232Th levels are primarily driven by geological factors, while mushrooms tightly regulate 40K. Meanwhile, 137Cs levels can vary widely depending on species biology and local contamination histories, illustrating the legacy of major nuclear events such as Chernobyl. Although the levels reported here are generally not alarmingly high, certain species—particularly within the Tricholoma genus—could pose an increased internal exposure risk when consumed frequently in large quantities.
Therefore, periodic monitoring of radionuclide content in frequently consumed mushrooms is recommended, particularly in regions known to have experienced fallout or with distinctive geological features. Future studies might incorporate seasonal sampling, dose assessments for local communities, and broader geospatial analyses to clarify radionuclide distribution in Turkish forest ecosystems. These efforts will enhance public health protection while underscoring the role of mushrooms as valuable bioindicators of environmental radioactivity.
Although dose estimation was not within the scope of the current study, future investigations should incorporate internal dose assessments and cancer risk evaluations based on species-specific consumption rates and biokinetic models to better inform public health strategies.

5. Conclusions

These findings confirm that, after nuclear accidents such as Chernobyl, certain long-lived radionuclides (particularly 137Cs) can persist in forest ecosystems for many years. The main conclusions and recommendations of this study are summarized below.
Species-Specific Variations: Some mushroom species show a pronounced capacity for 137Cs accumulation, likely due to distinct physiological and chemical properties [14].
Regional Influences: In Tekirdağ, several species exhibited more elevated 137Cs levels than their counterparts in Amasya, possibly reflecting differences in fallout history and soil composition [6,8].
Public Health Implications: Since the routine consumption of mushrooms may lead to increased internal exposure, periodic monitoring of commonly consumed species is advisable [21].
Role of Mushrooms as Bioindicators: Mushrooms can serve effectively as bioindicators for identifying nuclear accidents or fallout-induced contamination [7].
In conclusion, our results underscore the importance of regularly monitoring radioactivity levels in frequently consumed mushroom species. The persistence of long half-life artificial isotopes, such as 137Cs, raises concerns about internal exposure and necessitates ongoing attention. The data and methodological framework provided by this study can inform future radioecological research. Broader geographic sampling, the inclusion of additional mushroom species, seasonal analyses, and more detailed dose assessments will further clarify how mushrooms can be utilized as comprehensive bioindicators and how to best protect public health.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.A. and A.A.; methodology, S.A. and A.A.; software, S.A.; validation, S.A.; formal analysis, S.A. and A.A.; investigation, A.A. and S.A.; resources, A.A. and S.A.; data curation, A.A. and S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A.; writing—review and editing, S.A.; visualization, S.A.; supervision, S.A.; project administration, A.A. and S.A.; funding acquisition, S.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Selçuk University Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Coordination Office (project number: 20201046).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are not publicly available due to privacy and confidentiality restrictions. However, specific details regarding the dataset and experimental methodology have been provided in the manuscript to ensure transparency and reproducibility. Researchers who require further information may contact the corresponding author, subject to compliance with applicable ethical, institutional, and legal constraints.

Acknowledgments

We sincerely thank the Selçuk University Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Coordination Office for their invaluable support in enabling this research. We would also like to thank Mehmet Erdoğan from the Physics Department for guiding us with his ideas.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Change in 137Cs specific activity concentration according to mushroom species collected from the Tekirdağ region.
Figure 1. Change in 137Cs specific activity concentration according to mushroom species collected from the Tekirdağ region.
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Figure 2. Change in 137Cs specific activity concentration according to mushroom species collected in the Amasya region.
Figure 2. Change in 137Cs specific activity concentration according to mushroom species collected in the Amasya region.
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Figure 3. Change in 232Th specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Tekirdağ.
Figure 3. Change in 232Th specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Tekirdağ.
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Figure 4. Change in 232Th specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Amasya.
Figure 4. Change in 232Th specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Amasya.
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Figure 5. Change in 238U specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Tekirdağ.
Figure 5. Change in 238U specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Tekirdağ.
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Figure 6. Change in 238U specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Amasya.
Figure 6. Change in 238U specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Amasya.
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Figure 7. Change in 40K specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Tekirdağ.
Figure 7. Change in 40K specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Tekirdağ.
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Figure 8. Change in 40K specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Amasya.
Figure 8. Change in 40K specific activity concentration according to mushroom samples from Amasya.
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Figure 9. Chernobyl fallout area [36] and study area (Tekirdağ and Amasya).
Figure 9. Chernobyl fallout area [36] and study area (Tekirdağ and Amasya).
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Table 1. Edible mushroom species collected in Tekirdağ and Amasya Provinces.
Table 1. Edible mushroom species collected in Tekirdağ and Amasya Provinces.
Tekirdağ ProvinceAmasya Province
Amanita caesarea (Scop.) PersLactarius deliciosus (L.) Grey
Lycoperdon perlatum Pers.Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm.
Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) SingerHygrophorus chrysodon (Batsch) Fr.
Lactarius deliciosus (L.) GreyHygrophorus latitabundus Britzelm.
Lactarius vellereus (Fr.) Fr.Tricholoma fracticum (Britzelm.) Kreisel
Suillus luteus (L.) RousselGanoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst
Boletus edulis Bull.Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer
Armillaria mellea (Vahl) P. Kumm.Tricholoma imbricatum (Fr.) P. Kumm
Tricholoma terreum (Schaeff.) P. KummHydnum repandum (L.)
Hydnum repandum L.Ganoderma applanatum Pers.
Table 2. Specifications of standard calibration source.
Table 2. Specifications of standard calibration source.
IsotopeEnergy (keV)Half-Life (Days)Abundance (%)
133Ba81383033
109Cd884643.72
57Co122.127186
57Co136.527111
133Ba276.438306.9
133Ba302.8383019
133Ba356383062
133Ba383.838308.7
22Na511946180
137Cs661.611,02285
54Mn834.8313100
60Co1173.21922100
22Na1274.5946100
60Co1332.51922100
Table 3. Radionuclide activities of mushroom species in Tekirdağ region (Bq/kg).
Table 3. Radionuclide activities of mushroom species in Tekirdağ region (Bq/kg).
Species238U (Bq/kg)232Th (Bq/kg)40K (Bq/kg)137Cs (Bq/kg)
Amanita caesarea10.0 ± 0.38.9 ± 0.31298.8 ± 51.83.9 ± 0.1
Lycoperdon perlatum14.6 ± 0.411.9 ± 0.31940.9 ± 77.411.5 ± 0.3
Macrolepiota procera11.9 ± 0.47.7 ± 0.21666.2 ± 66.218.2 ± 0.4
Lactarius deliciosus4.8 ± 0.11.3 ± 0.1825.8 ± 32.95.2 ± 0.2
Lactarius vellereus8.6 ± 0.33.4 ± 0.1287.4 ±11.118.9 ± 0.4
Suillus luteus15.5 ± 0.41.9 ± 0.11104.0 ± 42.531.0 ± 0.8
Boletus edulis10.4 ± 0.31.8 ± 0.11086.8 ± 41.612.6 ± 0.4
Armillaria mellea11.3 ± 0.32.3 ± 0.1660.5 ± 26.15.1 ± 0.1
Tricholoma terreum17.5 ± 0.43.5 ± 0.1908.4 ± 35.8127.8 ± 3.3
Hydnum repandum16.1 ± 0.46.2 ± 0.21057.8 ± 42.1115.7 ± 2.8
Table 4. Radionuclide activities (Bq/kg) in mushroom species collected from the Amasya region.
Table 4. Radionuclide activities (Bq/kg) in mushroom species collected from the Amasya region.
Species238U (Bq/kg)232Th (Bq/kg)40K (Bq/kg)137Cs (Bq/kg)
Lactarius deliciosus3.3 ± 0.17.8 ± 0.2224.7 ± 8.935.2 ± 0.9
Armillaria mellea4.9 ± 0.114.3 ± 0.41105.1 ± 44.124.1 ± 0.3
Hygrophorus chrysodon2.7 ± 0.19.6 ± 0.32048.5 ± 81.512.7 ± 0.4
Hygrophorus latitabundus2.6 ± 0.18.2 ± 0.3954.3 ± 38.48.6 ± 0.2
Tricholoma fracticum3.5 ± 0.19.9 ± 0.3766.1 ± 30.216.9 ± 0.4
Ganoderma lucidum5.7 ± 0.27.4 ± 0.21151.4 ± 46.19.4 ± 0.2
Macrolepiota procera1.3 ± 0.16.5 ± 0.2763.3 ± 30.23.1 ± 0.1
Tricholoma imbricatum1.9 ± 0.116.0 ± 0.51377.0 ± 54.763.7 ± 1.6
Hydnum repandum2.3 ± 0.18.4 ± 0.31587.9 ± 63.313.4 ± 0.4
Ganoderma applanatum4.6 ± 0.115.8 ± 0.41603.1 ± 63.818.3 ± 0.4
Average3.2810.391158.1420.54
Soil9.1 ± 0.312.5 ± 0.3385.2 ± 15.223.1 ± 0.5
Table 5. 238U, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs activity concentrations (Bq/kg) in common mushroom species collected in the Amasya and Tekirdağ Provinces.
Table 5. 238U, 232Th, 40K, and 137Cs activity concentrations (Bq/kg) in common mushroom species collected in the Amasya and Tekirdağ Provinces.
Species238U (Bq/kg)232Th (Bq/kg)40K (Bq/kg)137Cs (Bq/kg)Locality
Macrolepiota procera6.5 ± 0.21.3 ± 0.1763.3 ± 30.23.1 ± 0.1Amasya
Macrolepiota procera11.9 ± 0.47.7 ± 0.21666.2 ± 66.218.2 ± 0.4Tekirdağ
Lactarius deliciosus7.8 ± 0.23.3 ± 0.1224.7 ± 8.935.2 ± 0.9Amasya
Lactarius deliciosus4.8 ± 0.11.3 ± 0.1825.8 ± 32.95.2 ± 0.2Tekirdağ
Hydnum repandum8.4 ± 0.32.3 ± 0.11587.9 ± 63.313.4 ± 0.4Amasya
Hydnum repandum16.1 ± 0.46.2 ± 0.21057.8 ± 42.1115.7 ± 2.8Tekirdağ
Soil12.5 ± 0.39.1 ± 0.3385.2 ± 15.223.1 ± 0.5Amasya
Soil19.2 ± 0.57.2 ± 0.2362.6 ± 14.32.3 ± 0.1Tekirdağ
Table 6. 137Cs activity concentration studies conducted in other countries.
Table 6. 137Cs activity concentration studies conducted in other countries.
Countries137Cs (Bq/kg)YearReference
Italy10.33–732.292001[27]
Slovakia322.9–869.62005[17]
Poland330–16,6702006[29]
Slovakia2.4–7202006[18]
Czech Rep.0.4–7082006[18]
Türkiye27.2–28.42007[20]
Brazil1.45–10.62012[2]
Türkiye (Ordu-Kastamonu)-2014[19]
Türkiye (Orta Karadeniz)<0.01–6972018[30]
Türkiye (Trabzon)-2019[31]
Bulgaria98–1242020[32]
Türkiye (Amasya-Tekirdağ)3.1–127.82021This study
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Akkaya, A.; Aktaş, S. Radioactive Contaminants in Edible Mushrooms: A Comparative Study of 137Cs and Natural Radionuclides in Amasya and Tekirdağ, Türkiye. J. Fungi 2025, 11, 351. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050351

AMA Style

Akkaya A, Aktaş S. Radioactive Contaminants in Edible Mushrooms: A Comparative Study of 137Cs and Natural Radionuclides in Amasya and Tekirdağ, Türkiye. Journal of Fungi. 2025; 11(5):351. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050351

Chicago/Turabian Style

Akkaya, Afife, and Sinan Aktaş. 2025. "Radioactive Contaminants in Edible Mushrooms: A Comparative Study of 137Cs and Natural Radionuclides in Amasya and Tekirdağ, Türkiye" Journal of Fungi 11, no. 5: 351. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050351

APA Style

Akkaya, A., & Aktaş, S. (2025). Radioactive Contaminants in Edible Mushrooms: A Comparative Study of 137Cs and Natural Radionuclides in Amasya and Tekirdağ, Türkiye. Journal of Fungi, 11(5), 351. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11050351

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