Distribution and Prevalence of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface in Africa: A Systematic Review
Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Search Strategy
2.3. Screening Process
2.4. Data Extraction and Quality Assessment
2.5. Study Inclusion and PRISMA Flow Diagram
3. Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Prevalence and Distribution of Tick Species
4.2. Pathogen Prevalence and Host Interactions
4.3. Implications for Disease Control
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Topic | No. | Item | Location Where Item Is Reported |
---|---|---|---|
TITLE | |||
Title | 1 | Identify the report as a systematic review. | Title: “A Systematic Review” is included |
ABSTRACT | |||
Abstract | 2 | See the PRISMA 2020 for Abstracts checklist | |
INTRODUCTION | |||
Rationale | 3 | Describe the rationale for the review in the context of existing knowledge. | Introduction: Provides background and justification |
Objectives | 4 | Provide an explicit statement of the objective(s) or question(s) the review addresses. | Introduction: Clearly states the research question |
METHODS | |||
Eligibility criteria | 5 | Specify the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the review and how studies were grouped for the syntheses. | Section 2 |
Information sources | 6 | Specify all databases, registers, websites, organisations, reference lists and other sources searched or consulted to identify studies. Specify the date when each source was last searched or consulted. | Section 2.3 |
Search strategy | 7 | Present the full search strategies for all databases, registers, and websites, including any filters and limits used. | Section 2.2 |
Selection process | 8 | Specify the methods used to decide whether a study met the inclusion criteria of the review, including how many reviewers screened each record and each report retrieved, whether they worked independently, and if applicable, details of automation tools used in the process. | Table 1—Summary of database search strategies |
Data collection process | 9 | Specify the methods used to collect data from reports, including how many reviewers collected data from each report, whether they worked independently, any processes for obtaining or confirming data from study investigators, and if applicable, details of automation tools used in the process. | Section 2.4 |
Data items | 10a | List and define all outcomes for which data were sought. Specify whether all results that were compatible with each outcome domain in each study were sought (e.g., for all measures, time points, analyses), and if not, the methods used to decide which results to collect. | Section 2.4 |
10b | List and define all other variables for which data were sought (e.g., participant and intervention characteristics, funding sources). Describe any assumptions made about any missing or unclear information. | Section 2.4 | |
Study risk of bias assessment | 11 | Specify the methods used to assess risk of bias in the included studies, including details of the tool(s) used, how many reviewers assessed each study and whether they worked independently, and if applicable, details of automation tools used in the process. | Risk of Bias Assessment section |
Effect measures | 12 | Specify for each outcome the effect measure(s) (e.g., risk ratio, mean difference) used in the synthesis or presentation of results. | Section 3 |
Synthesis methods | 13a | Describe the processes used to decide which studies were eligible for each synthesis (e.g., tabulating the study intervention characteristics and comparing against the planned groups for each synthesis (item 5)). | Synthesis Methods section, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10 |
13b | Describe any methods required to prepare the data for presentation or synthesis, such as handling of missing summary statistics, or data conversions. | Synthesis Methods section | |
13c | Describe any methods used to tabulate or visually display results of individual studies and syntheses. | Tables and Figures | |
13d | Describe any methods used to synthesize results and provide a rationale for the choice(s). If meta-analysis was performed, describe the model(s), method(s) to identify the presence and extent of statistical heterogeneity, and software package(s) used. | Synthesis Methods section, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10 | |
13e | Describe any methods used to explore possible causes of heterogeneity among study results (e.g., subgroup analysis, meta-regression). | Section 3 | |
13f | Describe any sensitivity analyses conducted to assess robustness of the synthesized results. | Section 3 | |
Reporting bias assessment | 14 | Describe any methods used to assess risk of bias due to missing results in a synthesis (arising from reporting biases). | Risk of Bias Assessment section |
Certainty assessment | 15 | Describe any methods used to assess certainty (or confidence) in the body of evidence for an outcome. | Risk of Bias Assessment section |
RESULTS | |||
Study selection | 16a | Describe the results of the search and selection process, from the number of records identified in the search to the number of studies included in the review, ideally using a flow diagram. | PRISMA Flow Diagram (Figure 2) |
16b | Cite studies that might appear to meet the inclusion criteria, but which were excluded, and explain why they were excluded. | Section 2.5 | |
Study characteristics | 17 | Cite each included study and present its characteristics. | Table 2—Characteristics of included studies |
Risk of bias in studies | 18 | Present assessments of risk of bias for each included study. | Risk of Bias Assessment section (Figure 11) |
Results of individual studies | 19 | For all outcomes, present, for each study: (a) summary statistics for each group (where appropriate) and (b) an effect estimate and its precision (e.g., confidence/credible interval), ideally using structured tables or plots. | Tables and Figures (e.g., prevalence per tick species) |
Results of syntheses | 20a | For each synthesis, briefly summarise the characteristics and risk of bias among contributing studies. | Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10 |
20b | Present results of all statistical syntheses conducted. If meta-analysis was conducted, present for each the summary estimate and its precision (e.g., confidence/credible interval) and measures of statistical heterogeneity. If comparing groups, describe the direction of the effect. | Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10 | |
20c | Present results of all investigations of possible causes of heterogeneity among study results. | Section 3 | |
20d | Present results of all sensitivity analyses conducted to assess the robustness of the synthesized results. | Section 3 | |
Reporting biases | 21 | Present assessments of risk of bias due to missing results (arising from reporting biases) for each synthesis assessed. | Risk of Bias section |
Certainty of evidence | 22 | Present assessments of certainty (or confidence) in the body of evidence for each outcome assessed. | Risk of Bias section |
DISCUSSION | |||
Discussion | 23a | Provide a general interpretation of the results in the context of other evidence. | Section 4 |
23b | Discuss any limitations of the evidence included in the review. | Discussion—Regional and Surveillance Gaps | |
23c | Discuss any limitations of the review processes used. | Discussion—Screening and Selection Process Limitations | |
23d | Discuss implications of the results for practice, policy, and future research. | Discussion—Future Directions and One Health Approach | |
OTHER INFORMATION | |||
Registration and protocol | 24a | Provide registration information for the review, including register name and registration number, or state that the review was not registered. | The review was not registered. |
24b | Indicate where the review protocol can be accessed, or state that a protocol was not prepared. | A protocol was not prepared. | |
24c | Describe and explain any amendments to information provided at registration or in the protocol. | Not applicable | |
Support | 25 | Describe sources of financial or non-financial support for the review, and the role of the funders or sponsors in the review. | Not applicable |
Competing interests | 26 | Declare any competing interests of review authors. | Conflicts of Interest section |
Availability of data, code and other materials | 27 | Report which of the following are publicly available and where they can be found: template data collection forms; data extracted from included studies; data used for all analyses; analytic code; any other materials used in the review. | Data Availability Statement |
Appendix B
Topic | No. | Item | Reported? |
---|---|---|---|
TITLE | |||
Title | 1 | Identify the report as a systematic review. | Yes |
BACKGROUND | |||
Objectives | 2 | Provide an explicit statement of the main objective(s) or question(s) the review addresses. | Yes |
METHODS | |||
Eligibility criteria | 3 | Specify the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the review. | Yes |
Information sources | 4 | Specify the information sources (e.g., databases, registers) used to identify studies and the date when each was last searched. | Yes |
Risk of bias | 5 | Specify the methods used to assess risk of bias in the included studies. | Yes |
Synthesis of results | 6 | Specify the methods used to present and synthesize results. | Yes |
RESULTS | |||
Included studies | 7 | Give the total number of included studies and participants and summarise relevant characteristics of studies. | Yes |
Synthesis of results | 8 | Present results for main outcomes, preferably indicating the number of included studies and participants for each. If meta-analysis was conducted, report the summary estimate and confidence/credible interval. If comparing groups, indicate the direction of the effect (i.e., which group is favoured). | Yes |
DISCUSSION | |||
Limitations of evidence | 9 | Provide a brief summary of the limitations of the evidence included in the review (e.g., study risk of bias, inconsistency and imprecision). | Yes |
Interpretation | 10 | Provide a general interpretation of the results and important implications. | Yes |
OTHER | |||
Funding | 11 | Specify the primary source of funding for the review. | Yes |
Registration | 12 | Provide the register name and registration number. | No |
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Database | Search Count | Search String | Reason for Reduction | Imported Count |
---|---|---|---|---|
Google Scholar | 431 | TITLE: ((tick* OR Ixodidae OR “hard tick*”) AND “wildlife–livestock interface” AND (prevalence OR distribution OR “tick-borne disease”)) | Irrelevant, language, and outside Africa | 23 |
PubMed/MEDLINE | 14 | ((tick* OR ticks OR Ixodidae OR “hard tick*”) AND “wildlife–livestock interface”) | None | 14 |
Scopus | 24 | TITLE-ABS-KEY (ticks OR hard AND ticks AND wildlife–livestock AND interface) AND PUBYEAR > 2014 AND PUBYEAR < 2026 | Years | 23 |
Core | 319 | (tick* OR Ixodidae OR “hard tick”) AND “wildlife–livestock interface” AND (prevalence OR distribution OR “tick-borne disease”) | Language and years | 298 |
Dimension AI | 14 | ((tick* OR Ixodidae OR “hard tick”) AND “wildlife–livestock interface” AND (prevalence OR distribution OR “tick-borne disease”)), 2025 or 2023 or 2021 or 2020 or 2018 or 2017 or 2016, Article | None | 13 |
Lens | 53 | Scholarly Works (53) = ((tick* OR (Ixodidae OR “hard tick”)) AND (“wildlife–livestock interface” AND (prevalence OR (distribution OR “tick-borne disease”)))) | None | 53 |
Science Direct | 124 | tick AND wildlife AND livestock AND interface | None | 124 |
Country/Region | Hosts | Sample Size | Total Pathogens | Pathogens with Prevalence | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Queen Elizabeth NP, Uganda | Cattle | 208 | 6 |
| [16] |
Serengeti NP, Tanzania | Cattle | 770 | 1 |
| [28] |
Budongo Forest, Uganda | Goats (Caprines), Sheep (Ovines) | 712 (666 goats, 46 sheep) | 6 |
| [23] |
Zimbabwe (south-eastern lowveld—Gonarezhou NP, Malilangwe Conservancy) | Goats | 563 | 2 |
| [34] |
Mikumi NP, Tanzania | Cattle | 252 cattle, 630 ticks collected | 0 | N/A—The study identified tick species | [42] |
South Africa (Mnisi community—bordering Kruger National Park, Mpumalanga) | Cattle | 184 | 5 |
| [22] |
Tanzania (Mikumi National Park interface) | Ticks | 400 ticks | 17+ virus families (metagenomic detection) |
| [43] |
Botswana (Northern—Maun West & Chobe West) | Cattle | 301 | 4 |
| [13] |
Kenya (Lambwe Valley—Ruma National Park interface) | Cattle (zebu) | 680 | 6 |
| [44] |
Kenya (Laikipia and Maasai Mara National Reserve) | Wildlife, ticks | Wildlife: 152 Ticks: 851 (Laikipia: 756; MMNR: 95) | 1 |
| [45] |
Bushbuckridge, South Africa | Humans | 138 | 4 |
| [46] |
Mozambique (Gorongosa National Park and buffer zone) | Soft ticks | 1865 soft ticks | 1 |
| [47] |
Tanzania (Northern—Simanjiro and Monduli interface areas) | Cattle, Buffalo | Cattle: 160 Buffalo: 22 | 1 |
| [38] |
Tanzania (Mikumi National Park interface, Morogoro Region) | Cattle, Goats, Environment | 436 animals (260 cattle, 176 goats) 847 ticks collected | 0 | Not assessed—tick diversity study | [48] |
Zimbabwe | Cattle, African buffalo, kudu, impala | Cattle: 1011 Buffalo: 111 Kudu: 18 Impala: 32 | 1 |
| [40] |
Kenya (Narok County—Maasai Mara wildlife–livestock interface) | Cattle, Sheep, Wildebeest | 61 animals (30 cattle, 30 wildebeest, 1 sheep); 165 ticks collected | 5 |
| [49] |
Kenya (Laikipia and Maasai Mara ecosystems) | Wildlife; Ticks | 152 wildlife 851 ticks | 2 |
| [33] |
Kenya (Various wildlife–livestock interface zones: Nairobi NP, Maasai Mara, Laikipia, Marula) | Lions, Leopards, Cheetahs, Giraffes, Waterbuck | 253 | 2 |
| [50] |
Kenya (Amboseli ecosystem, Kajiado County) | Impalas, Sheep, Goats | Sheep: 200 Goats: 300 Impalas: 20 | 1 |
| [39] |
Zimbabwe (Southeast lowveld—Gonarezhou and Kruger NP interface) | Cattle, Wildlife (buffalo, impala, kudu, giraffe) | Cattle: 1158 Wildlife: 97 | 1 |
| [51] |
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Makwarela, T.G.; Seoraj-Pillai, N.; Nangammbi, T.C. Distribution and Prevalence of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface in Africa: A Systematic Review. Vet. Sci. 2025, 12, 364. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12040364
Makwarela TG, Seoraj-Pillai N, Nangammbi TC. Distribution and Prevalence of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface in Africa: A Systematic Review. Veterinary Sciences. 2025; 12(4):364. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12040364
Chicago/Turabian StyleMakwarela, Tsireledzo Goodwill, Nimmi Seoraj-Pillai, and Tshifhiwa Constance Nangammbi. 2025. "Distribution and Prevalence of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface in Africa: A Systematic Review" Veterinary Sciences 12, no. 4: 364. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12040364
APA StyleMakwarela, T. G., Seoraj-Pillai, N., & Nangammbi, T. C. (2025). Distribution and Prevalence of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface in Africa: A Systematic Review. Veterinary Sciences, 12(4), 364. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12040364