An Overview of 20 Years of Pisco Spirit Research: Trends and Gaps Revealed by a Systematic Review

Abstract

Pisco is an emblematic spirit in Peru and Chile, made from fermented grapes, gaining growing scientific interest over the last two decades. This study aimed to map 20 years of research on Pisco through a systematic bibliometric review. A search was conducted in the Scopus database covering the period from 2004 to 2024, applying the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology for the transparent selection of scientific articles. The search strategy considered titles, abstracts, and keywords, using the terms “Pisco” and “schnapps”, excluding unrelated fields such as geology (basin, seismic, fossil). The initial search yielded 360 records. After removing non-original articles (books, book chapters, conference papers, and reviews), 101 articles remained. A further screening excluded irrelevant studies (e.g., those referring to the city of Pisco rather than the beverage), resulting in 78 articles included for final analysis. It was observed that 19% of the studies focus on the history, culture, and appellation of origin; 14% on environmental sustainability; 10% on innovation and quality; and 9% on the bioactive properties of by-products. Other areas include extraction technologies (9%), distillation process modeling (8%), and marketing and economics (8%), among others. Recent trends are related to clean production practices. Thus, Pisco by-products and their components can be exploited by applying technologies such as supercritical fluids, drying, and biofilms, while, for waste management, the processes of composting, solar photo-Fenton, and ozonation can be applied. Moreover, it is important to highlight that the valorization of Pisco by-products opens opportunities for translation into the market, particularly in developing cosmetics, nutritional supplements, and bio-packaging materials, contributing to sustainability and innovation in new industries. However, a more holistic view is still needed in Pisco research. These findings suggest that future research should prioritize the integration of consumer-based sensory evaluations and sustainable production innovations to optimize Pisco’s quality, enhance market acceptance, and promote environmentally responsible industry practices.

1. Introduction

Grapes are among the most widely cultivated fruits in the world. They are significant as fresh fruit and for their use in producing wine and other distilled beverages. In the 2023–2024 season, global grape production was projected to reach 28.39 million metric tons [1]. Approximately 57% of this production will be allocated to wine production [2], while around 15% will be used to create other alcoholic beverages, including distillates such as Pisco [3].

Pisco is a unique grape brandy known worldwide for its distinctive chemical and sensory characteristics. It originates from South American countries, particularly Peru and Chile [4]. In Peru, Pisco has been recognized as the “Cultural Heritage of the Nation”, which underlines its importance not only as a beverage but also as a fundamental element of national identity and economic development [5]. According to the Peruvian Ministry of Production [6], this sector has grown at an average annual variation rate of 6.5% during the last decade. In 2023, production reached 7.6 million liters, driven by domestic demand and increased exports, mainly to the United States, Spain, and the Netherlands [6]. Pisco also has a specific appellation of origin, which arises from various factors, including the homogeneity of the regions concerning climate, grape varieties, and, to a lesser extent, soil characteristics. Additionally, there are geographical factors tied to the contention over the use of this designation between Chile and Peru [7]. The production of Peruvian Pisco involves several carefully orchestrated technological operations, each crucial to the spirit’s final quality and sensory characteristics. The process can be broadly divided into harvesting, crushing and pressing, fermentation, distillation, and resting. This distillate is produced from the fermented must of Albilla, Italy, Moscatel, Mollar, Negra Criolla, Quebranta, Torontel, and Uvina grape varieties, sourced from well-known regions in Peru, including Lima, Ica, Arequipa, Moquegua, and Tacna. For this reason, distilled beverages produced outside these recognized areas are known as “Aguardiente de Uva” [4,5,8]. In Chile, Pisco is produced in the Atacama and Coquimbo regions [9] and is protected by a denomination of origin (DO) [10]. Chilean Pisco is produced in two varieties: white or clear Pisco and aged Pisco, using specific grape varieties [11], especially Muscatel grapes, which require a dry, highly luminous climate, such as the one found in the northern zone of Chile.

Pisco is currently positioned in international markets as a quality product, owing to its sensory qualities. It also holds significant cultural importance, as it contributes to gastronomic identity by promoting tourism [5]. While its production process and quality and suggestions for the valorization of its by-products have been reviewed [12], it is still necessary to identify with precision and depth what practices and technologies can be applied in the Pisco industry to achieve a more sustainable production system, as well as to evaluate the state of the art on the sensory perception from the consumer’s perspective.

In this context, this review systematically analyzes the evolution of research in Pisco (2004–2024) through a bibliometric approach, identifying knowledge gaps in sustainable production, process optimization, and consumer perception. This analysis reveals future trends and challenges that academia and industry must face to achieve a more holistic production system, where consumer perception plays a key role in optimizing processes and positioning Pisco in the market. Specifically, this review seeks to answer the following questions: What are the main research trends in Pisco? How has the Pisco industry evolved? What role does consumer perception play in improving the final product and its acceptance in the market?

Despite prior reviews covering specific aspects of Pisco production and chemical characterization, a comprehensive and structured mapping of the evolution of scientific research on Pisco over the last two decades has yet to be conducted. Therefore, this study presents a novel contribution by systematically analyzing 20 years of Pisco-related research through a bibliometric approach based on the PRISMA methodology. By identifying thematic trends, knowledge gaps—especially regarding sustainability practices and consumer sensory perception—and proposing future research directions, this work offers a unique and updated perspective that will benefit both academic researchers and the Pisco industry.

2. Methodology

2.1. Search Strategy, Filtering, and Article Selection

The Scopus database was searched in December 2024, and the components were identified based on the PIO framework: population (Pisco AND schnapps), intervention (intervention or key focus excludes unrelated contexts, such as ‘basin’, ‘seismic’, and ‘fossil’, which are likely to be associated with geological studies or unrelated uses of the keywords), and outcome (articles considering titles, abstracts, and keywords, published in English between 2004 and 2024). Then, the keywords were selected using the following search equation: ‘Pisco’ OR ‘schnapps’ AND NOT ‘basin’ AND NOT ‘seismic’ AND NOT ‘fossil’. The initial search yielded 360 records. The results of this search were exported in CSV format.

The selection process of papers followed the PRISMA approach, ensuring transparency and reproducibility in accordance with the guidelines of [13]. The PRISMA checklist is available in the Supplementary Materials. * Priority was given to original research articles published in the last 20 years, excluding publications such as books, book chapters, conference proceedings, and review articles, which resulted in 101 records. The 259 records resulting from the previous elimination were subjected to a blinded assessment process by the authors using the open-access software Rayyan (Web version) [14], facilitating the identification and exclusion of irrelevant studies. During this process, some articles were excluded if they referred to the city of Pisco, located on the coast of Peru, instead of the Pisco beverage. After applying these exclusion criteria, the final list was reduced to 78 articles relevant to this systematic and bibliometric review (Figure 1). The selected articles were further grouped into thematic categories, including historical studies, production processes, chemical composition, sustainability, and market trends. This classification allowed for a structured analysis of the evolution of Pisco research over the last two decades.

2.2. Data Processing

The Bibliometrix R-package (version 4.2.1) [15] and VOSviewer (version 1.6.19) [16] were used for data analysis and visualization.

VOSviewer was used to create co-occurrence networks of keywords. To ensure the accurate grouping of words with similar meanings, thesauri were used to calculate aggregated frequencies and semantic relationships among keywords, which helped to clarify the relationships between keywords and their temporal evolution. It is important to note that some degree of overlap between clusters is possible, as certain keywords are semantically related to multiple research topics. This overlap naturally results from the clustering algorithm used by VOSviewer, which groups terms based on their frequency and co-occurrence patterns.

Meanwhile, Bibliometrix was used to analyze the production of articles over time, identifying trends in scientific productivity. Data extraction was carried out independently by three reviewers. Discrepancies were resolved by a fourth reviewer. This analysis was presented through a timeline of publications and their geographic distribution. Additionally, the origins of the articles and their citation counts were examined, allowing for an exploration of the influence of research within the academic field. Furthermore, keyword clouds were generated, offering a comprehensive representation of the distribution and impact of scientific publications related to Pisco. A multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) was conducted to group keywords into thematic clusters and identify relevant patterns within the literature, and a strategic diagram was used to provide a comprehensive understanding of thematic evolution and the overall impact of Pisco-related research.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Descriptive Analysis

Figure 2 illustrates the number of scientific articles published from 2004 to 2024, indicating a growing interest in the subject over the years, despite some fluctuations. The highest peak was recorded in 2023, with 11 articles related to Pisco. Additionally, the six countries that have made the most significant contributions to scientific research in this area are highlighted. Peru stands out as the country with the largest number of scientific contributions, followed closely by Chile. Both countries produce and promote Pisco as a distinctive product and encourage scientific research that supports its authenticity and cultural significance [17,18]. Other countries, such as Spain, Brazil, the United States, and Argentina, also contribute to the body of scientific literature on Pisco, reflecting a global interest in this field of research.

It is important to note that the total number of contributions exceeds the number of articles analyzed, as the same article may have authors affiliated with institutions in different countries. This highlights the collaborative nature of scientific research on Pisco and reflects its growing relevance on a global scale.

The number of citations serves as an important indicator for assessing the impact and quality of a scientific article.

Table 1. The top ten articles with the highest number of citations.

Title	Main Findings	Journals	Citations	Authors
Production of polyphenol extracts from grape bagasse using supercritical fluids: Yield, extract composition and economic evaluation	The economic feasibility of large-scale supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) has been demonstrated for recovering phenolic compounds from Pisco grape bagasse. This process produced extracts with high concentrations of phenolic compounds, such as syringic acid, gallic acid, and quercetin, using CO2 and ethanol. A plant with a capacity of 0.5 m3 could achieve a production cost of USD 133.16 per kilogram for these phenolic extracts.	Journal of Supercritical Fluids	141	[19]
Grape pomace compost as a source of organic matter: Evolution of quality parameters to evaluate maturity and stability	Evaluated chemical, microbiological, biochemical, and phytotoxic parameters during the composting of grape pomace (a Pisco by-product) mixed with goat or horse manure over 180 days. Fulvic and humic acid production correlated with bacterial activity, and the humic/fulvic acid ratio (Ha/Fa) effectively indicated the composting process. The compost met Chilean national standards, showed low phytotoxicity (radish germination > 92%), and was free of pathogens (e.g., Salmonella sp. and fecal coliforms). This demonstrated the potential of composting for sustainability in Pisco production.	Journal of Cleaner Production	57	[20]
Comparison between odour and aroma profiles of Chilean Pisco spirit	The odor and aroma profiles of Chilean Pisco were compared as a function of distillation fractions and maturation. It was found that the evaluation of odor by trained judges was slightly more discriminating than aroma, concluding that odor evaluation alone may be sufficient to characterize the aroma of Pisco.	Food Quality and Preference	44	[21]
Phase equilibrium modeling in binary mixtures found in wine and must distillation	Modeled phase equilibrium for binary mixtures in wine and must distillation using NRTL, UNIFAC, and PSRK models. Evaluated 18 binary mixtures (ethanol+congeners and water+congeners) legally allowed in Pisco production under Chilean law. Provided insights about optimizing distillation processes for quality and regulatory compliance.	Journal of Food Engineering	41	[22]
Wine Distillates:  Practical Operating Recipe Formulation for Stills	Developed a methodology using computer simulations and optimization techniques to create practical recipes for wine distillers. Enabled the production of distillates closer to desired characteristics compared to commercial products.	Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry	35	[23]
Supercritical fluid extraction of polyphenols from lees: Overall extraction curve, kinetic data and composition of the extracts	Compared supercritical CO2 extraction (10% ethanol) at 20 MPa with conventional methods. Supercritical extraction produced higher concentrations of polyphenols but achieved lower global yields. Highlighted Pisco lees as a promising source of polyphenols.	Bioresources and Bioprocessing	35	[24]
Characterization of the aromatic profile of the Italia variety of Peruvian Pisco by gas chromatography-olfactometry and gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization and mass spectrometry detection systems	Evaluated 33 commercial Pisco samples from five Peruvian regions using GC-O and quantitative chemical analysis. Identified 25 odorants, highlighting terpenes like linalool as key contributors to the floral aroma. Found regional differences, with Ica producing more complex aromas and Moquegua having fewer phenolic compounds, affecting sensory perception.	Food Research International	34	[25]
Applying the Technology Choice Model in Consequential Life Cycle Assessment: A Case Study in the Peruvian Agricultural Sector	Studied environmental impacts of Pisco demand growth in Ica and Pisco valleys using CLCA. Identified local reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and water use through crop substitution, but global offsets from displaced agriculture. Provided a robust methodology applicable to geographically restricted agricultural systems.	Journal of Industrial Ecology	31	[26]
Life Cycle Assessment of the production of Pisco in Peru	Analyzed the environmental impacts of Pisco production using life cycle assessment, identifying critical points in production systems and proposing improvements. Suggested standardizing processes and including good environmental practices in Denomination of Origin regulations to enhance sustainability.	Journal of Cleaner Production	31	[27]
Modeling methanol recovery in wine distillation stills with packing columns	Developed a batch distillation simulator for packed columns to minimize methanol content in wine distillates like Pisco. Validated with lab experiments, the model accurately predicts outcomes, helping distillers optimize processes and comply with Chilean legal limits of 1.5 g/L methanol.	Food Control	31	[28]

presents the ten most cited articles in Pisco research, which primarily focus on sustainability, chemical characterization, and process optimization. The most cited study examined the economic feasibility of extracting phenolic compounds from grape bagasse using supercritical fluids, highlighting the potential for sustainable waste valorization. Other significant research included composting grape pomace to produce fertilizers and the sensory and chemical characterization of Chilean and Peruvian Pisco, which revealed the crucial role of terpenes such as linalool in their aroma. Regarding sustainability, the environmental impacts of Pisco production were assessed using life cycle assessments, which identified areas for improvement through process standardization and the adoption of good environmental practices. Additionally, models and simulators were developed to optimize the distillation process, reducing methanol content and enhancing the safety and quality of the final product.

Figure 3 illustrates the thematic evolution of Pisco research from 2004 to 2024 through two distinct keyword clouds, divided into two periods: 2004–2014 and 2015–2024. The first period (Figure 3a) focuses on Pisco’s chemical composition, sensory attributes, and analytical processes. Keywords such as “quantitative analysis”, “aroma”, “olfactometry”, and “appellations of origin” highlight the emphasis on understanding the spirit’s quality, production methods, and unique identity as a geographically significant product. In contrast, the second period (Figure 3b) shows a thematic shift toward environmental, sustainability, and antioxidant properties topics. This shift is indicated by terms like “industrial ecology”, “grape pomace”, “polyphenols”, and “antioxidant capacity”. This transition reflects the alignment of Pisco research with global trends, emphasizing ecological and economic sustainability while maintaining product quality, similar to developments in related industries such as wine [29,30].

Additionally, the prominent presence of terms like “Peru” and “Chile” reflects the ongoing cultural and geographical competition between these two countries for the denomination of origin. This period also shows a stronger focus on increasing Pisco’s commercial and international appeal, adapting the research themes to align with global trends in the alcoholic beverage industry [31,32]. The thematic evolution illustrated in Figure 3 shows how Pisco research has advanced from a primary focus on composition and identity to a wider perspective that includes sustainability and market competitiveness. This shift lays the groundwork for further progress in both academic and industrial contexts.

3.2. Keyword Co-Occurrence Network

Over the past two decades, research on Pisco has significantly diversified, reflecting a growing interest in various aspects of this traditional spirit. Researchers have explored its unique chemical composition, cultural and geographical significance, production processes, and emerging sustainability and regulatory protection concerns. Figure 4 displays the results of the co-occurrence analysis, which identifies thematic clusters that represent the primary areas of research in Pisco studies from 2004 to 2024. Each cluster emphasizes a distinct focus, including chemical and sensory analysis, sustainability efforts, cultural identity, and production techniques.

The red cluster focuses on the chemical and sensory analysis of Pisco, with prominent keywords such as “aroma”, “aromatic compounds”, “esters”, “mass spectrometry”, “gas chromatography”, and “terpenes” indicating a strong focus on understanding the volatile compounds and olfactory properties that define Pisco’s unique sensory profile, emphasizing the importance of chemical composition in determining product quality [33,34].

The second cluster is blue and addresses environmental and sustainability concerns associated with Pisco production [27,35], exploring the use of by-products [36,37]. Keywords like “environmental impact”, “industrial ecology”, “life cycle”, and “polyphenols” highlight an increasing emphasis on sustainable production practices and minimizing the environmental footprint of Pisco. This trend aligns with global research efforts prioritizing resource efficiency and environmental preservation in traditional industries. It reflects a broader commitment to integrating sustainability into production processes [38].

In the green cluster, the focus shifts to the broader category of alcoholic beverages and includes terms like “Peru”, “Chile”, “odor”, and “linalool”. This cluster highlights the relevance of the competitive landscape between Peruvian and Chilean Pisco producers. The term “alcoholic beverage” suggests that Pisco is studied as a unique spirit within the context of the broader alcoholic beverage industry. Additionally, the cluster addresses the aromatic profile of Pisco, with compounds like linalool, which contribute floral and citrus notes, playing a key role in its sensory appeal and differentiation in the market. These aromatic differences may be a defining factor in the perceived variation between Peruvian and Chilean Pisco [5].

The yellow cluster, consisting of six nodes, is dedicated to research on distillation processes, which are crucial for controlling the composition and stability of the final product [21,39]. Terms such as “phase equilibria”, “binary mixtures”, and “furfural” indicate a focus on the stability and blending characteristics of these beverages. Finally, the light purple cluster, formed by three nodes, centers around the concept of Pisco, appellations of origin, and geographical identity. This cluster reflects the interest in legal and cultural recognition of Pisco, which is essential for its positioning in local and international markets [17,18].

3.3. Multiple Correspondence Analysis

Figure 5 presents a two-dimensional representation of keywords associated with Pisco research, derived from multiple correspondence analysis (MCA). This analysis accounts for 39.23% of the variance in the first dimension and 12.59% in the second dimension, illustrating the thematic structure of the published topics. Dimension 1 highlights the shift from traditional research focused on sensory and chemical characterization to more contemporary topics, such as sustainability and advanced industrial processes. Dimension 2 contrasts practical themes, like sustainability and the circular economy, with conceptual issues such as appellation of origin and international recognition.

Three main thematic clusters emerge from the analysis. The blue cluster, located on the left side, concentrates on the sensory and chemical characterization of Pisco, featuring keywords such as “olfactometry”, “aroma”, and “Peruvian Pisco”. The red cluster, situated in the upper right, encompasses topics related to sustainability, advanced industrial processes, and the geographical significance of Pisco, placing an emphasis on technological innovations and the environmental impact of the industry. Finally, the green cluster, found in the lower right, pertains to the appellation of origin and the global positioning of Pisco, stressing its authenticity and the international recognition of Pisco as a distinct distillate.

3.4. Topic Areas and Main Findings

In analyzing the scientific articles, eleven main thematic areas emerged as focal study points (see

Table 2. Pisco research topic areas during 2004–2024, obtained from papers indexed in Scopus.

Topic Area	Article Titles	Reference
History, culture, and appellation of origin of Pisco	Distillations of authenticity: a comparative global value chain analysis of Pisco	[17]
	Uncovering the socio-material assemblage of a culinary heritagization: The Wildschönauer Krautinger schnapps	[40]
	Homologation of an artisanal Pisco winery (grape distillate) to obtain the certification: “designation of origin”	[41]
	Pisco: An endless conflict for its geographical indication or an opportunity for international collaboration?	[18]
	Vineyard, Stills and “Twenty Five Earthen Jars of Pisco”	[42]
	African Americans as co-founders of the viticulture of Argentina and Chile	[43]
	The war of Pisco through the study of the labels	[44]
	Brandy and Vineyards in Chile: Quillota, Colchagua y Cauquenes from 1777 census	[45]
	Muscat of Alexandria in Chile and Argentina: Origin and relationship with Pisco (Chilean Brandy)	[46]
	Pisco Denomination of Origin in Chile: Some national and international matters	[47]
	The awakening of Pisco in Chile	[48]
	Pisco and toponimy: Impact of brandy routes in development of geographical names and places in Chile, Peru and Argentina	[49]
	Routes of brandy in Southern Cone of America (1586–1850). Background of Appellation of Origin Pisco	[50]
	Contesting Pisco: Chile, Peru, and the politics of trade	[51]
Environmental effects and sustainability in the production of Pisco	Application of Vacuum and Convective Drying Processes for the Valorization of Pisco Grape Pomace to Enhance the Retention of its Bioactive Compounds	[33]
	Technical and economical assessment of the treatment of vinasse from Pisco production using the advanced oxidation process	[52]
	Sustainability of grape (Vitis vinifera L.)—producing farms for Pisco in the Ica-Peru region	[53]
	Quality properties and mathematical modeling of vinasse films obtained under different conditions	[37]
	Grape pomace compost as a source of organic matter: Evolution of quality parameters to evaluate maturity and stability	[20]
	Implementation of a Cleaner Production Agreement and impact analysis in the grape brandy (Pisco) industry in Chile	[35]
	Life Cycle Assessment of the production of Pisco in Peru	[27]
	Determination of phenolic compounds and evaluation of antioxidant capacity of two grapes residues (Vitis vinifera) of varieties dried: Quebranta (red) and Torontel (white)	[54]
	Assessing the magnitude of potential environmental impacts related to water and toxicity in the Peruvian hyper-arid coast: A case study for the cultivation of grapes for Pisco production	[7]
	Impact of climate change on some grapevine varieties grown in Peru for Pisco production	[55]
	Applying the Technology Choice Model in Consequential Life Cycle Assessment: A Case Study in the Peruvian Agricultural Sector	[26]
Innovation, technological development and quality in Pisco production	Enzymatic production, physicochemical characterization, and prebiotic potential of pectin oligosaccharides from Pisco grape pomace	[56]
	Evolution of Acetaldehyde, Methanol, and Furfural in Pisco Distillation	[57]
	Linear programming-based decision support system for grapes transport planning in CAPEL	[58]
	Use of vinasse and coffee waste as chelating agent of photo-Fenton landfill leachate treatment	[59]
	Non-invasive monitoring of ethanol and methanol levels in grape-derived Pisco distillate by vibrational spectroscopy	[60]
	Quality aroma improvement of Muscat wine spirits: A new approach using first-principles model-based design and multi-objective dynamic optimisation through multi-variable analysis techniques	[61]
	Supercritical fluid extraction of polyphenols from lees: Overall extraction curve, kinetic data and composition of the extracts	[24]
	Soft-sensor for on-line estimation of ethanol concentrations in wine stills	[62]
Chemical and bioactive composition of pisco residues	Characterization of polyunsaturated fatty acids and antioxidant activity of Vitis vinifera L. (grape) seeds from the Ica Valley, Peru	[34]
	Pisco grape pomace: Iron/copper speciation and antioxidant properties, towards their comprehensive utilization	[63]
	Effects of subcritical water extraction and cultivar geographical location on the phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of Quebranta (Vitis vinifera) grape seeds from the Peruvian Pisco industry by-product	[36]
	Production of antioxidant pectin fractions, drying pretreatment methods and physicochemical properties: towards pisco grape pomace revalue	[64]
	Hot pressurized liquid extraction of polyphenols from the skin and seeds of Vitis vinifera L. Cv. negra criolla pomace a peruvian native Pisco industry waste	[65]
	Ultrasound and heterogeneous photocatalysis for the treatment of vinasse from Pisco production	[66]
	Production of polyphenol extracts from grape bagasse using supercritical fluids: Yield, extract composition and economic evaluation	[19]
Extraction and analysis technologies in the Pisco industry	Application of Machine Learning Algorithms to Classify Peruvian Pisco Varieties Using an Electronic Nose	[67]
	Method development of stir bar sportive extraction coupled with thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the analysis of phthalates in Peruvian Pisco	[68]
	SnO2-TiO2 and SnO2-MoO3 Based Composite Gas Sensors to Develop an E-nose for Peruvian Pisco Varieties Differentiation	[69]
	Combination of single-point standard addition calibration and natural internal standardization for quantification of terpenes in Pisco samples	[5]
	Improvement in the performance of an electrochemical sensor for ethanol determination by chemical treatment of graphite	[70]
	Isotope dilution gas chromatography—mass spectrometry for the development of certified reference material of ethyl carbamate in hydroalcoholic matrix	[71]
	Electromagnetic Transducer for In-Line Determination of Alcohol Content in Pisco	[72]
Modeling and optimization of distillation processes	Modelling methanol recovery in wine distillation stills with packing columns	[28]
	Complementary vapor pressure data for 2-methyl-1-propanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol at a pressure range of (15 to 177) kPa	[73]
	Vapour-liquid equilibrium in binary aqueous mixtures using a modified regular solution model	[74]
	Wine distillates: Practical operating recipe formulation for stills	[23]
	Phase equilibrium modeling in binary mixtures found in wine and must distillation	[22]
	Phase equilibrium in binary aqueous mixtures of interest in alcoholic distillation using a modified PSRK equation of state	[75]
Economics of consumption, business and market	Analysis and structural characterization of the vid-Pisco market	[76]
	Mediation effect of adaptive planning between social capital and business innovation: Application to a community of Pisco producers in Peru	[77]
	The impact of prices on alcoholic beverage consumption in Chile	[78]
	Exploring different types of innovation in micro and small peruvian enterprises	[79]
	An analysis of the current situation of the small peruvian Pisco Producers in the Cañete valley: A case of study among associated farmers vs. non-associated ones	[80]
	Can craft beverages shape a destination’s image? A cognitive intervention to measure Pisco-related resources on conative image	[81]
Sensory studies and consumer preference	Brand value of Chilean Pisco: contributions from the Pisco region of Chile	[82]
	Gender differences in the assessment of Pisco attributes	[9]
	Implementation of sensory stimulation technology in an interactive room for the diffusion of wine making activities	[83]
	Proposal for a standardized set of sensory terms for Pisco, a young muscat wine distillate	[39]
	Comparison between odour and aroma profiles of Chilean Pisco spirit	[21]
Fermentation and microbiology in Pisco	Non-Saccharomyces Yeast Strains, Aromatic Compounds and Sensory Analysis of Italy and Negra Criolla Pisco from the Moquegua Region of Peru	[84]
	Identification and selection of wild Saccharomyces cerevisiae for improvement of Pisco from Quebranta grapes	[85]
	Survival of Salmonella in Peruvian Pisco sour drink	[86]
	Growth regulators for in vitro culture of three grapevine rootstocks (Vitis vinifera L.) used in the Pisco industry	[87]
	Optimization of media for in vitro propagation and rooting of creole grapevine varieties utilized for Pisco making	[88]
Grape agronomy	Varietal richness of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) from the Majes Valley, Peru: Identification, morphological characterization, ampelographic and genetic analysis	[89]
	Prospection and identification of traditional-heritage Peruvian grapevine cultivars (Vitis vinifera L.) from Ica and Cañete valleys	[90]
	Molecular and ampelographic characterization of Pisco grapevine accessions conserved in a germplasm collection center of the Ica, Peru	[91]
	Characterization and typology of grape producing farms for Pisco in Ica-Peru region	[92]
	Native varieties, an opportunity for chilean Pisco	[93]
Aromatic Characterization and Chemical Profile of Pisco	Comparison of the aromatic profile of three aromatic varieties of Peruvian pisco (Albilla, Muscat, and Torontel) by chemical analysis and gas chromatography-olfactometry	[94]
	The impact of grape variety on the aromatic chemical composition of non-aromatic Peruvian Pisco	[8]
	Characterization of the aromatic profile of the Italia variety of Peruvian Pisco by gas chromatography-olfactometry and gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization and mass spectrometry detection systems	[25]
	Characterization of the aromatic profile of the Quebranta variety of Peruvian Pisco by gas chromatography-olfactometry and chemical analysis	[95]

). This classification was based on an examination of abstracts, supplemented by reviews of methodologies and conclusions, and the full text of some articles when the primary focus was not immediately clear. Figure 6 illustrates those eleven studies. The history, culture, and designation of origin of Pisco represent nineteen percent of the total. This category includes analyses of its cultural heritage, geographical disputes, and historical evolution in Chile, Peru, and even Argentina. Fourteen percent of the articles addressed environmental impacts and sustainability in Pisco production, exploring topics such as the ecological footprint, the valorization of grape pomace, and the effects of climate change on production regions. Meanwhile, 10% concentrated on innovation, technological advancements, and quality assurance, emphasizing developments in distillation monitoring, aroma enhancement, and enzymatic processes. Nine percent of the articles examined Pisco by-products’ chemical composition and bioactive properties, underscoring their potential in a circular economy. Another 9% investigated extraction technologies and analytical methods, including advanced sensors and machine learning for varietal differentiation. Eight percent concentrated on modeling and optimizing distillation processes, while an additional eight percent explored the economics and marketing of Pisco, focusing on pricing strategies and the role of tourism in market positioning. Lastly, areas such as sensory analysis with consumer preferences (6%), fermentation processes and microbiology (6%), agronomic studies on grape varieties (6%), and aromatic and chemical characterization (5%) highlight ongoing efforts to enhance the quality and sustainability of Pisco. Over the past two decades, this diverse spectrum of research underscores a collaborative effort to optimize Pisco production while recognizing its cultural, environmental, and economic significance.

3.5. Bibliographic Coupling Analysis

The literature on Pisco between 2004 and 2024 can be categorized into thematic areas, represented by different colors in Figure 7. Each color corresponds to a specific thematic group, and the size of each node indicates the frequency of citations that the publications have received; larger nodes signify greater relevance in the literature. The figure organizes the research areas related to Pisco based on their development density (vertical axis) and central relevance (horizontal axis). The thematic map highlights key areas of research on Pisco, organized into four quadrants based on their relevance and development. The Motor Themes quadrant includes topics such as “aroma”, “Peruvian Pisco”, and “olfactometry”, which focus on the sensory and chemical profiling of Pisco. Complementarily,

Table 3. Aromatic characterization and chemical profile of Pisco.

Study Focus	Analyses Performed	Methods of Analysis	Main Results	Reference
The aromatic profile of Pisco by grape variety	Forty-five samples of commercial Pisco made from Albilla, Moscatel, and Torontel grapes from different areas of Peru.	Gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O) and quantitative chemical analysis.	Identified 30 odorants in Torontel, Albilla, and Moscatel varieties. Torontel is rich in terpenes and β-damascenone; Moscatel has high benzyl alcohol and β-phenyl ethanol; and 2,3-pentane dione is a unique odorant in Albilla samples.	[94]
Aromatic and chemical characterization of Pisco by Negra Criolla, Mollar, and Uvina grapes	Thirty-one commercial samples of Peruvian Pisco were made from Negra Criolla, Mollar, and Uvina grapes.	Gas chromatography (GC-FID and GC-MS), gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O), and descriptive sensory analysis.	Mollar: Outstanding presence of β-phenylethyl acetate in high concentrations, low levels of volatile phenols and esters. Four compounds: with ≥1 aroma values in more than 70% of the samples: ethyl isovalerate, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, and β-phenylethanol.	[8]
Aromatic profile and chemical analysis of Pisco by Quebranta grape variety	Twenty-one commercial samples of Pisco made from Quebranta grapes from four different geographical areas of Peru.	Gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O) and quantitative chemical analysis.	Quebranta variety showed a simple profile of 22 odorants, mainly fermentation-derived. Moquegua samples had lower β-phenylethyl acetate, β-phenylethanol, β-damascenone, and linalool levels but higher ethyl acetate.	[95]
Aromatic profile and chemical analysis of Pisco by Italia grape variety	Thirty-three commercial samples of Pisco made from Italia grapes from five different regions of Peru.	Gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC-O) and quantitative chemical analysis.	Identified 25 odorants Linalool is the most prominent compound in most samples, providing a remarkable floral aroma. The Italia variety has more compounds, such as nerol, and fewer esters, which give fruity notes. Ica Pisco has a more complex aromatic profile, while Moquegua has fewer phenolic compounds.	[25]

highlights four key studies on Pisco’s aromatic characterization and chemical profile, revealing variations based on grape variety, geographical origin, and production methods. Research employing gas chromatography–olfactometry has identified key aromatic compounds, such as linalool, β-damascenone, and geraniol, contributing to floral and fruity notes characteristic of varieties like Italia and Torontel. Moreover, regional (from Peru) differences are evident, with Pisco from Ica exhibiting a more complex aromatic profile than Moquegua.

The Basic Themes quadrant (Figure 7) focuses on essential topics like “Pisco”, “Peru”, and “appellations of origin”. These studies highlight the importance of Pisco as a culturally and economically significant product with a protected designation of origin. This research emphasizes Pisco’s authenticity and geographic identity, critical factors for its market differentiation and global recognition. Other quadrants highlight specialized and emerging areas of research. The Niche Themes quadrant focuses on technical aspects such as “spirits” and “vapor-liquid equilibrium”, which are essential for distillation processes and quality control.

These processes also have parallels in other alcoholic beverages, like wine. The Emerging Themes quadrant features sustainability-oriented topics, including “grape pomace”, “polyphenols”, and “antioxidant capacity”. Additionally, it addresses technical studies on “ethanol” and “distillate”. These subjects present opportunities for innovation in utilizing by-products and optimizing production methods.

3.6. Future Challenges

3.6.1. Sustainable Practices

Sustainable practices align with global demands for environmentally conscious practices in the food and beverage industry. Thus, future research is expected to concentrate on waste management solutions and developing value-added products, such as repurposing grape pomace for cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food additives [33,96]. Exploring environmental effects and sustainability in Pisco production is crucial as these topics represent emerging areas of scientific interest, driven by the growing need for sustainable practices in the agro-industrial sector.

Table 4. Environmental effects and sustainability from the production of Pisco.

Study Focus	Analyses Evaluated	Main Results	Reference
Sustainability of grape-producing farms for Pisco in Ica, Peru	Evaluation of sustainability in 16 grape-producing farms using economic, social, and environmental indicators	Overall sustainability index: 2.39. Social: 2.84 (highest contribution). Economic: 2.56. Environmental: 1.78 (below the threshold). Monoculture and high dependence on external inputs pose ecological risks.	[53]
Drying of grape pomace for valorization	Evaluation of vacuum and convective drying at different temperatures to preserve polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity	Vacuum drying at 60 °C: most efficient, with shorter time (210 min) and higher diffusivity (6.64 × 10−10 m2/s). Preserved polyphenols such as gallic acid, catechin, and rutin. High antioxidant capacity. Environmentally friendly process.	[33]
Pisco wastewater treatment	Evaluation of solar photo-Fenton process with ozonation for COD and polyphenol removal in wastewater.	FP photoreactor: COD: 98.8%; polyphenols: 86.2%. CPC photoreactor: COD: 49.5%; polyphenols: 72.4%. FP reactors showed lower operational costs and higher environmental efficiency.	[52]
Vinasse valorization as bioproducts	Development of vinasse-based films plasticized with glycerol, evaluating mechanical properties and quality.	Optimal conditions: 80 °C and pH 11. Mechanical properties: high tensile strength (26.54 MPa) and high Young’s modulus (385.32 MPa). Potential use as packaging or coating materials in the food industry.	[37]
Composting grape pomace	Evaluation of composting processes for grape pomace mixed with goat or horse manure.	The humic-to-fulvic acid ratio (Ha/Fa) was identified as a key process evolution indicator. Enzymatic activities (alkaline phosphatase, β-glucosidase) and microbiological groups strongly correlated with humic and fulvic acid production. The compost met Chilean standards for organic amendments.	[20]
Cleaner production practices in the Pisco sector	Assessment of the Cleaner Production Agreement’s impact on waste and water management in Coquimbo, Chile.	Efficient handling of liquid industrial waste and water usage had the greatest impact. Solid waste showed a low incidence in production processes. The agreement highlights the importance of clean production for sustainability.	[35]
Environmental impacts of Pisco production	Life cycle assessment (LCA) of six Pisco wineries across viticulture, vinification/distillation, and bottling stages.	Viticulture was the most impactful stage, driven by fertilizer use and irrigation. Bottling had significant impacts on glass production. Distillation impacts depend on energy carriers. GWP ranged from 1.7–4.0 kg CO2eq per 500 mL bottle.	[27]
Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in grape pomace	Evaluation of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in Quebranta and Torontel grape pomace using two drying methods.	Cool air-drying preserved polyphenols and antioxidant activity better than freeze-drying, especially in Torontel. Cool air-drying is cost-effective and efficient, making it ideal for producing functional food ingredients.	[54]
Water footprint and toxic emissions in grape cultivation	Assessment of water footprint, toxic emissions, and eutrophication potential in vineyards for Pisco production using LCA.	High water footprint due to inefficient flooding irrigation in hyper-arid areas. High variability in water consumption between sub-watersheds. Elevated eutrophication potential compared to literature. Low freshwater eco-toxicity due to pesticide volatilization	[7]
Climate change and grapevine cultivation in Ica	Assessment of historical and projected climate impacts on grapevine cultivation for Pisco production in Ica, Peru.	Due to increasing temperatures, bioclimatic indices have increased in recent years and are projected to continue rising throughout the 21st century. The phenology of four Pisco cultivars (Quebranta, Torontel, Moscatel, Italia) shows shorter cycles due to rising temperatures.	[55]
Environmental impacts of increased Pisco demand	Analysis of climate change and water consumption impacts in response to growing demand for Pisco in Ica and Pisco valleys using consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA).	Demand for grapes to produce Pisco will double by 2030, leading to resource competition in confined production areas. Crop substitution in the valleys could increase Pisco production while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption locally.	[26]

highlights key studies focusing on by-product valorization, resource management, and the impacts of climate change.

By-products such as grape pomace have shown high potential for sustainable applications, with vacuum-drying preserving phenolic compounds effectively and composting processes producing high-quality organic amendments. Vinasse, another by-product, has been utilized to create biofilms with promising mechanical properties for the food industry. Resource management innovations, such as wastewater treatment using solar photo-Fenton and ozonation processes, have achieved high removal efficiencies for pollutants, while challenges remain in vineyard irrigation practices, mainly high-water footprints and eutrophication risks from flood irrigation. Climate change has further complicated viticulture, with rising temperatures accelerating phenological cycles of Pisco grape varieties, necessitating adaptive strategies to sustain production. Life cycle assessment studies reveal the significant environmental impacts of viticulture, bottling, and distillation stages, including greenhouse gas emissions and water use. Crop substitution within confined production areas offers a potential solution to meet demand while mitigating local environmental impacts. However, this must be balanced against risks associated with displaced production and resource competition.

These findings underscore the critical importance of integrating innovative and sustainable practices across the Pisco production chain to reduce environmental impacts, enhance resource efficiency, and ensure long-term viability. Additionally, the technologies explored for the valorization of Pisco by-products open opportunities for practical market applications, such as the development of natural cosmetics rich in antioxidants, nutritional supplements from grape seed extracts, and biodegradable bio-packaging materials derived from vinasse films.

3.6.2. Consumer Sensory Perception

Table 5. Topic on sensory studies and consumer perception of Pisco.

Study Focus	Methodology	Main Results	Reference
Development of sensory terminology to describe Pisco	Sensory profile performed by trained assessors	Twenty relevant sensory descriptors were identified, including vanilla, sultanas, linalool, and honey, which are characteristic of Pisco.	[39]
Analyze the brand equity of Chilean Pisco using Aaker’s multidimensional model	A survey based on Aaker’s multidimensional model of brand equity was used with 254 consumers	Significant differences in brand perception by gender, income (brand awareness), and age (perceived quality and brand associations). Proper management of brand equity attributes could improve the positioning and competitiveness of Chilean Pisco in the market.	[82]
Implementation of an interactive lounge using dynamic sensory stimulation (DSS) technology	Dynamic sensory stimulation (DSS) technology, climatic stimulation, olfactory stimulation, scientific–gustatory stimulation, and audiovisual stimulation	DSS technology enhances the dissemination of wine-making activities and promotes cultural and sensory appreciation.	[83]
To explore gender differences in the evaluation of Pisco attributes	Conjoint analysis applied to 120 consumers	Women preferred sweet flavors and grape aromas; men preferred intense flavors and woody aromas. Both preferred artisanal Pisco at a lower price.	[9]
Comparison of the odor and aroma profiles of Chilean Pisco according to its distillation fractions and degree of maturation	Evaluation by trained judges	Odor was slightly more discriminating than aroma at both the panel and individual levels. Odor evaluation could be sufficient to determine the aroma of Pisco.	[21]

presents essential studies on the sensory perception of Pisco. Traditionally performed by trained judges, there is now growing interest in consumer-based methods that better reflect market preferences, focusing on their sensory profile, consumer preferences, and innovative promotion strategies. Gender-specific preferences indicate that women tend to favor sweet flavors and grape aromas, while men prefer stronger, woody notes. Both groups show a preference for artisanal Pisco at a lower price point. Innovative approaches like dynamic sensory stimulation technology have proven effective in enhancing cultural and sensory appreciation by integrating olfactory, gustatory, and audiovisual stimuli. Furthermore, effective management of brand equity attributes, particularly for Chilean Pisco, has been shown to enhance market positioning and competitiveness. Sensory evaluations also demonstrate that analyzing odors alone can distinguish between Pisco samples, highlighting its significance in ensuring quality, authenticity, and a stronger connection to its cultural heritage.

Sensory evaluation of Pisco poses challenges due to its high alcohol content, which can mask subtle attributes. Previously, key sensory descriptors such as vanilla and honey have been identified during studies performed with trained assessors [39]. Still, there is a need to study the sensory profile determined by consumers to relate it to attitudes, preferences, and sensory acceptability, which are key aspects for making adjustments in the processing of Pisco. In this regard, [97] reported that alcoholic beverages can be sensorially characterized by static methods such as Napping, Check-All-That-Apply, Rate-All-That-Apply, Polarized Sensory Positioning, Polarized Projective Mapping, and Pivot Profile, as well as dynamic sensory methods, including Time-Intensity, Temporal Dominance of Sensations, and Temporal Check-All-That-Apply. Temporal methods provide deeper insights into how sensory perceptions evolve during tasting [98], although both approaches (static and dynamic) can be complementary [97]. Nevertheless, these methods are unexplored in Pisco research, so there is a valuable research opportunity to guide product development and marketing strategies.

4. Conclusions

Pisco research has evolved over the past two decades from early studies focusing mainly on chemical composition, production processes, and cultural aspects to a more multidisciplinary approach that emphasizes sustainability practices, by-product valorization, technological innovation, and consumer-centered sensory studies. This thematic shift, particularly notable after 2015, reflects the growing global interest in ecological responsibility and product quality optimization. Although this review is based solely on English-language articles, which is consistent with standard bibliometric practices, it is recommended that future reviews expand the search to include additional languages to capture a broader range of studies. Future research should prioritize dynamic sensory evaluation methods, such as Temporal Dominance of Sensations and Temporal Check-All-That-Apply, to deepen the understanding of consumer preferences and explore practical applications for Pisco by-products in sectors such as cosmetics, functional foods, and biodegradable packaging. Strengthening the link between scientific innovation and industrial application will be key to promoting sustainable growth and enhancing the global competitiveness of the Pisco industry.