Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Thyroid Cancer: An Overview
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Industrial: Flame Retardants
3.2. Industrial: Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
3.3. Plastic and Plasticizers: Phthalates
3.4. Plastic and Plasticizers: Bisphenol A (BPA)
3.5. Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)
3.6. Agricultural Pesticides
3.7. Organochlorine Pesticides
3.8. Organophosphate Pesticides
3.9. Other Pesticides
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Author (Year) | EDC Type (Congeners) | Country | Study Design | Investigated Population (n) | Measurement of Exposure | Association with Thyroid Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hoffman et al. (2017) [34] | Flame retardants (TBB, TBPH, TPHP, TCEP, TCIPP, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-209) | United States | Case-control | PTC cases from the Duke Cancer Institute (n = 70) Matched controls from the Duke Health system and surrounding communities (n = 70) | Dust samples. | High (below median value) vs. Low exposure (above median value): TBB: OR: 0.62 (95% CI: 0.29–1.31) TBPH: OR: 1.22 (95% CI: 0.56–2.65) TPHP: OR: 2.07 (95% CI: 0.94–4.56) TCEP: OR: 2.42 (95% CI: 1.10–5.33) TCIPP: OR:0.92 (95% CI: 0.43–1.97) BDE-47: OR: 0.80 (95% CI: 0.38–1.70) BDE-99: OR: 0.75 (95% CI: 0.36–1.59) BDE-100: OR: 0.88 (95% CI: 0.42–1.87) BDE-153: OR: 0.77 (95% CI: 0.37–1.63) BDE-154: OR: 0.80 (95% CI: 0.38–1.70) BDE-209: OR: 2.29; 95% CI: 1.03–5.08) |
Huang et al. (2020) [35] | PBDEs (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-85, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDe-153, BDE-154) PBBs (BB-153) | United States | Nested case-control | United States Department of Defense cohort. (n = 1484) PTC cases (n = 742) Matched controls (n = 742) | Lipid-adjusted serum concentrations | Third tertile vs. below limit of detection: Total population BDE-28: OR: 2.09 (95% CI: 1.02–4.15) BDE-47: OR: 1.00 (95% CI: 0.41–2.44) BDE-85: OR: 1.76 (95% CI: 0.57–5.47) BDE-99: OR: 0.86 (95% CI: 0.39–1.87) BDE-100: OR: 0.67 (95% CI: 0.27–1.65) BDE- 153: OR: 0.94 (95% CI: 0.55–1.61) BDE-154: OR: 0.61 (95% CI: 0.19–1.99) BB-153: OR: 0.92 (95% CI: 0.65–1.31) |
Aschebrook et al. (2015) [36] | PBDEs (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153) | United States | Nested case-control | Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial (n = 312) Thyroid cancer cases (n = 104) Matched controls (n = 208) | Lipid-adjusted serum samples | Continuous: BDE-47: OR: 0.95 (95% CI: 0.80–1.12) BDE-99: OR: 0.95 (95% CI: 0.81–1.11) BDE-100: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.84–1.09) BDE-153: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.82–1.11) Total PBDE: OR: 0.94 (95% CI: 0.79–1.11) |
Deziel et al. (2019) [37] | PBDEs (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-85, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-183, BDE-209) PBBs (BB-153) | United States | Case-control | Women identified through Yale Cancer Center’s Rapid Case Ascertainment Shared Resources (n = 500) PTC cases (n = 250) Age- matched controls (n = 250) | Lipid-adjusted serum concentrations | Continuous: BDE-28: OR: 0.94 (95% CI: 0.78–1.13) BDE-47: OR: 0.89 (95% CI: 0.72–1.10) BDE-99: OR: 0.91 (95% CI: 0.74–1.12) BDE-100: OR: 1.05 (95% CI: 0.87–1.26) BDE-153: OR: 1.08 (95% CI: 0.90–1.30) BDE-209: OR: 0.87 (95% CI: 0.71–1.06) BB-153: OR: 1.15 (95% CI: 0.88–1.52) Above LOD vs. below LOD: BDE-85: OR: 0.71 (95% CI: 0.48–1.05) BDE-154: OR: 0.78 (95% CI: 0.53–1.13) BDE-183: OR: 0.74 (95% CI: 0.49–1.12) |
Deziel et al. (2018) [39] | Organophosphate flame retardants (BCIPP. DPHP, BDCIPP, IPDPP, BCIPHIPP) | United States | Case-control | Women identified through Yale Cancer Center’s Rapid Case Ascertainment Shared Resources (n = 200) PTC cases (n = 100) Matched controls (n = 100) | Interviews and urine samples | Continuous: BCIPP: OR: 0.89 (95% CI: 0.76–1.04) DPHP: OR: 0.99 995% CI: 0.74–1.31) BDCIPP: OR: 1.07 (95% CI: 0.85–1.34) IPDPP: OR: 1.06 (95% CI: 0.75–1.48) BCIPHIPP: OR: 0.82 (95% CI: 0.65–1.01) Total PFR: OR: 0.93 (95% CI: 0.65–1.33) |
Author (Year) | EDC Type (Congeners) | Country | Study Design | Investigated Population | Measurement of Exposure | Association with Thyroid Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zhuo et al. (2018) [54] | PCBs (PCB-28, PCB-74, PCB-99, PCB-105, PCB-118, PCB-138/158, PCB-146, PCB-153, PCB-156, PCB-157, PCB-167, PCB-170, PCB-178, PCB-180, PCB-183, PCB-187, PCB-194, PCB-196/203, PCB-199, PCB-206, PCB-209) | United States | Nested case-control | Department of Defense Automated Central Tumor Registry (ACTUR) and Defense Medical Surveillance System (DMSS) (n = 1484) PTC cases = 742 Matched controls = 742 | Lipid-adjusted serum concentrations | Fourth quartile vs. first quartile: PCB-28: OR: 1.04 (95% CI: 0.62–1.76) PCB-74: OR: 1.24 (95% CI: 0.50–3.09) PCB-99: OR: 1.05 (95% CI: 0.68–1.62) PCB-105: OR: 1.02 (95% CI: 0.62–1.70) PCB-118: OR: 1.55 (95% CI: 1.01–2.38) PCB-138/158: OR: 1.07 (95% CI: 0.65–1.76) PCB-146: OR: 0.81 (95% CI: 0.48–1.38) PCB-153: OR: 1.01 (95% CI: 0.61–1.68) PCB-156: OR: 1.15 (95% CI: 0.67–1.95) PCB-157: OR: 1.44 (95% CI: 0.63–3.29) PCB-167: OR: 1.90 (95% CI: 0.74–4.85) PCB-170: OR: 0.92 (95% CI: 0.53–1.59) PCB-178: OR: 0.79 (95% CI: 0.34–1.88) PCB-180: OR: 0.80 (95% CI: 0.47–1.35) PCB-183: OR: 0.73 (95% CI: 0.39–1.35) PCB-187: OR: 0.89 (95% CI: 0.55–1.43) PCB-194: OR: 0.77 (95% CI: 0.43–1.36) PCB-196/203: OR: 1.08 (95% CI: 0.62–1.88) PCB-199: OR: 1.15 (95% CI: 0.68–1.95) PCB-206: OR: 1.57 (95% CI: 0.81–3.04) PCB-209: OR: 1.81 (95% CI: 0.83–3.97) |
Lerro et al. (2018) [55] | PCBs (PCB-28, PCB-44, PCB-49, PCB- 52, PCB-66, PCB-74, PCB-87, PCB-99, PCB-101, PCB-105, PCB-110, PCB-114, PCB-118; PCB-128, PCB-138/158, PCB-146, PCB-149, PCB-151, PCB-153, PCB-156, PCB-157, PCB-167, PCB-170, PCB-172, PCB-177, PCB-178, PCB-180, PCB-183, PCB-187, PCB-189, PCB-194, PCB-195, PCB-196/203, PCB-199, PCB-206, PCB-209) | Norway | Nested case-control | Norwegian Janus Serum Bank cohort (n = 324) Thyroid cancer cases (n = 108) Controls (n = 216) | Blood samples | Continuous: PCB-28:OR: 1.05 (95% CI:0.70–1.58) PCB-44: OR: 0.97 (95% CI: 0.79–1.19) PCB-49: OR: 0.93 (95% CI: 0.67–1.30) PCB-52: OR: 0.95 (95% CI: 0.80–1.13) PCB-66: OR: 0.90 (95% CI: 0.65–1.24) PCB-74: OR: 0.85 (95% CI: 0.69–1.05) PCB-87: OR: 0.71 (95% CI: 0.33–1.55) PCB-99: OR: 0.85 (95% CI: 0.71–1.00) PCB-101: OR: 0.91 (95% CI: 0.67–1.23) PCB-105: OR: 0.83 (95% CI: 0.62–1.12) PCB-110: OR: 0.93 (95% CI: 0.65–1.33) PCB-114: OR: 0.78 (95% CI: 0.62–0.97) PCB-118: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.89–1.04) PCB-128: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.87–1.06) PCB-138/158: OR: 0.86 (5% CI: 0.64–1.15) PCB-146: OR: 0.94 (95% CI: 0.80–1.11) PCB-149: OR: 0.95 (95% CI: 0.87–1.03) PCB-151: OR: 0.98 (95% CI: 0.89–1.07) PCB-153: OR: 0.91 (95% CI: 0.72–1.14) PCB-156: OR: 0.90 (95% CI: 0.71–1.13) PCB-157: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.87–1.06) PCB-167: OR: 0.98 (95% CI: 0.93–1.04) PCB-170: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.87–1.05) PCB-172: OR: 0.98 (95% CI: 0.92–1.04) PCB-177: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.92–1.01) PCB-178: OR: 0.98 (95% CI: 0.93–1.03) PCB-180: OR: 0.86 (95% CI: 0.58–1.27) PCB-183: OR: 0.85 (95% CI: 0.64–1.14) PCB-187: OR: 0.94 (95% CI: 0.84–1.06) PCB-189: OR: 0.63 (95% CI: 0.12–3.45) PCB-194: OR: 0.88 (95% CI: 0.67–1.15) PCB-195: OR: 0.91 (95% CI: 0.81–1.02) PCB-196/203: OR: 0.79 (95% CI: 0.59–1.04) PCB-199: OR: 0.77 (95% CI: 0.58–1.03) PCB-206: OR: 0.95 (95% CI: 0.88–1.02) PCB-209: OR: 1.00 (95% CI: 0.93–1.08) Total: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.90–1.02) |
Deziel et al. (2020) [56] | PCB-28, PCB-66, PCB-74, PCB-99, PCB-105, PCB-114, PCB-118, PCB-138 & 158, PCB-146, PCB-153, PCB-156, PCB-157, PCB-167, PCB-170, PCB-178, PCB-180, PCB-183, PCB-187, PCB-189, PCB-194, PCB-196 & 203, PCB-199, PCB-206, PCB-209, | United States | Case control | Incident female PTC cases (n = 250) Female controls (n = 250) | Interviews and serum samples | PCB-28: OR 0.89 (95% CI: 0.77–1.04) PCB-66: OR: 0.95 (95% CI: 0.84–1.06) PCB-74: OR: 0.94 (95% CI: 0.74–1.18) PCB-99: OR: 0.99 (95% CI: 0.88–1.10) PCB-105: OR: 0.98 (95% CI: 0.91–1.05) PCB-114: OR: 1.01 (95% CI: 0.82–1.25) PCB-118: OR: 0.99 (95% CI: 0.88–1.10) PCB-138 & 158: OR: 0.97 (95% CI 0.81–1.17) PCB-146: OR: 0.95 (95% CI: 0.76.-1.29) PCB-153: OR: 1.00 (95% CI: 0.78–1.29) PCB-156: OR: 0.99 (95% CI: 0.76–1.29) PCB-157: OR: 0.97 (95% CI: 0.75–1.25) PCB-167: OR: 0.99 (95% CI: 0.79–1.23) PCB-170: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.70–1.33) PCB-178: OR: 1.04 (95% CI: 0.79–1.37) PCB-180: OR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.70–1.33) PCB-183: OR: 1.04 (95% CI: 0.83–1.31) PCB-187: OR: 1.02 (95% CI: 0.81–1.27) PCB-189: OR: 0.90 (95% CI: 0.66–1.24) PCB-194: OR: 1.05 (95% CI: 0.75–1.45) PCB-196 & 203: OR: 1.12 (95% CI: 0.83–1.50) PCB-199: OR: 1.11 (95% CI: 0.84–1.45) PCB-206: OR: 1.07 (95% CI: 0.85–1.36) PCB-209: OR: 1.07 (95% CI: 0.89–1.30) |
Ruder et al. (2014) [57] | PCBs | United States | Cohort | Capacitor-manufacturing workers exposed to PCBs at plants in Indiana, Massachusetts and New York (n = 24,865) Short term workers (n = 7647) Long term workers (n = 17,218) | Cumulative PCB exposure using plant-specific job-exposure matrices | Standardized thyroid cancer mortality ratios: Entire cohort: SMR: 0.52 (95% CI: 0.11–1.53) Short-term workers: SMR: 0.00 (95% CI: 0.00–2.76) Long-term workers: SMR: 0.68 (95% CI: 0.14–2.00) |
Author (Year) | EDC Type (Metabolites) | Study Design | Country | Investigated Population | Measurement | Association with Thyroid Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marotta et al. (2019) [70] | DEHP (MEHP) | Cross-sectional | Italy | Patients with differentiated TC (n = 28) Patients with benign thyroid nodules (n = 27) | Serum | MHEP: OR: 3.19 (95% CI: 0.85–11.87) (unadjusted) DHEP: OR: 15.07 (95% CI: 1.59–142.13) |
Miao et al. (2020) [66] | DEHP (MBP, MEP, MEHP, MEOHP, MECPP, MEHHP) | Case-control | China | Cancer Hospital of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences PTC cases (n = 111) Controls with non-PTC (n = 111) | Urinary phthalates metabolite concentrations | MBP: OR: 1.48 (95% CI: 0.98–2.24) MEP: OR: 1.40 (95% CI: 0.90–2.19) MEHP: OR: 7.30 (95% CI: 2.17–24.56) MEOHP: OR: 2.07 (95% CI: 1.21–3.53) MECPP: OR: 3.11 (95% CI: 1.56–6.19) MEHHP: OR: 3.63 (95% CI: 1.69–7.74) Total DEHP: OR: 3.15 (95% CI: 1.64–7.49) |
Liu et al. (2020) [71] | Phthalate metabolites (MMP, MEP, MBP, MBzP, MEHHP, MEOHP, MEHP) | Case-control | China | Central Hospital of Wuhan, China Thyroid cancer cases (n = 144) Healthy adults (n = 144) | Creatinine–adjusted urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations | Continuous: MMP: OR: 1.11 (95% CI: 1.01–1.22) MEP: OR: 0.97 (95% CI: 0.84–1.13) MBP: OR: 0.45 (95% CI: 0.34–0.60) MBzP: OR: 0.71 (95% CI: 0.60–0.85) MEOHP: OR: 1.09 (95% CI: 0.84–1.42) MEHHP: OR: 1.53; 95% CI: 1.19–1.96) MEHP: OR: 1.46; 95% CI: 1.09–1.91) |
Author (Year) | EDC Type | Study Design | Country | Investigated Population | Measurement of Exposure | Association with Thyroid Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zhou et al. (2017) [81] | BPA | Cross-sectional | China | Qilu Hospital of Shandong University PTC (n = 53) Healthy volunteers (n = 65) | Urinary BPA concentrations | Higher urinary BPA (>2.84 ng/mL) vs. lower urinary BPA: OR: 3.57 (95% CI: 1.37–9.30) |
Marotta et al. (2019) [70] | BPA, BPS, BPF, BPE, BPB, BPAF, BADGE | Cross-sectional | Italy | Patients with differentiated TC (n = 28) Patients with benign thyroid nodules (n = 27) | Serum | Unadjusted analysis: BPA: OR: 3.17 (95% CI: 0.67–20.34) BPS: OR: 10.1 (95% CI: 0.51–197.32) BPF: OR: 5.18 (95% CI: 0.23–111.22) BPB: OR: 1.50 (95% CI: 0.46–4.83) BAGDE: OR: 2.66 (5% CI: 0.61–11.64) Adjusted analysis: BPE: OR: 3.62 (95% CI: 0.69–18.95) BPAF: OR: 15.07 (95% CI: 1.59–142.13) |
Author (Year) | EDC Type | Study Design | Country | Investigated Population | Measurement of Exposure | Association with Thyroid Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barry et al. (2013) [89] | PFOA | Cohort | United States | C8 Health Project (n = 32,254) | Estimated PFOA serum levels | No lag: HR: 1.10 (95% CI 0.95–1.20) 10-year lag: HR: 1.04 (95% CI: 0.89–1.20) |
Vieria et al. (2013) [90] | PFOA | Case-control | United States | Incident cancer cases among residents living near the DuPont Teflon-manufacturing plant in Parkersburg, West Virginia (n = 19,716) using cancer registry data | Estimated individual-level annual PFOA serum exposure categories | Very high: OR: 0.8 (95% CI: 0.2–3.5) High: OR: 0.7 (95% CI: 0.2–2.1) Medium: OR: 0.9 (95% CI: 0.4–2.3) Low: OR: 1.2 (95% CI: 0.8–1.7) |
Olsen et al. (2004) [91] | PFOA | Case-control | United States | Fluorochemical production facility employees (n = 652 cases) and film plant employees (n = 659 controls) | Health claims data | RR (95% CI): unable to calculate |
Leonard et al. (2008) [92] | PFOA | Case-control | United States | Workers at polymer manufacturing facility (n = 6027) Workers at other DuPont facilities (n = 72,882) | Causes of death (Dupont Epidemiology Registry) or (NDI Plus) | SMR: 628.6 (95% CI: 129.7; 1836.9) |
Author (Year) | EDC Type | Study Design | Country | Investigated Population | Measurement of Exposure | Association with Thyroid Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lerro et al. (2018) [55] | Organochlorine Pesticides (DDT metabolites) | Nested case-control | Norway | Norwegian Janus Serum Bank cohort Thyroid cancer cases (n = 108) Control (n = 216) | Blood samples | Continuous: p,p’-DDE: OR: 0.79 (95% CI: 0.64–0.97) p,p’-DDT: OR: 0.86 (95% CI: 0.71–1.05) o,p’-DDT: OR: 0.81 (95% CI: 0.64–1.02) Total DDT metabolites: OR: 0.80 (95% CI: 0.66–0.98) |
Lerro et al. (2020) [107] | Lindane | Cohort | United States | AHS cohort (n = 53,096) | Self-administered questionnaires on pesticide exposure | HR: 1.74 (95% CI: 1.06–2.84) |
Louis et al. (2017) [108] | Organochlorine pesticides (Aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, DDT, heptachlor, lindane, toxaphene) | Cohort | United States | Female spouses of pesticide applicators in the AHS (n = 32,345) No pesticide use (n = 26,718) Pesticide use (n = 2191) | Self-administered questionnaires on OC pesticide exposure | Ever versus never exposed: Any OC: RR: 0.66 (95% CI: 0.26–1.63) Chlordane: RR: 0.97 (95% CI: 0.36–2.67) Not more than 3 exposed thyroid cancer cases for other OC pesticides so RR not calculated. |
Saracci et al. (1991) [109] | Chlorophenoxy herbicides and/or chlorophenols | Cohort | France | International register of production workers or sprayers form ten countries (n = 18,910) Exposed workers (n = 13,482) Probably exposed workers (n = 416) Non-exposed workers (n = 3951) | Questionnaires on exposure | SMR: 357 (95% CI: 97–914) (4 thyroid cancer-related deaths) |
Grimalt et al. (1994) [110] | Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) | Cohort | Spain | Community exposed to HCB (n = 5003) Reference community | Average 24-h air levels of OC compounds (including HCB, PCB, pp’DDE, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene) | Male: SIR: 6.7 (95% CI: 1.6–28) Female: SIR: 1.0 (95% CI: 0.14–7.4) |
Deziel et al. (2020) [56] | Organochlorine insecticides | Case control | United States | Incident female PTC cases (n = 250) Female controls (n = 250) | Interviews and serum samples | Hexachlorobenzene: OR: 1.02 (95% CI: 0.91–1.14) β-HCCH: OR: 1.00 (95% CI: 0.97–1.03) Oxychlordane: OR: 1.00 (95% CI: 0.74–1.36) trans-Nonachlor: OR: 0.94 (95% CI: 0.75–1.19) p,p’-DDE: OR: 0.97 (95% CI: 0.90–1.05) p,p’-DDT: OR: 0.99 (95% CI: 0.90–1.09) Mirex: OR: 1.02 (95% CI: 0.95–1.09) |
Ruder et al. (2011) [111] | Pentachlorophenol (PCP) | Cohort | United States | PCP production workers from four plants in the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Dioxin Registry (n = 2122) | PCP exposure level from registry | No cases of thyroid cancer mortality reported |
Lerro et al. (2015) [119] | Malathion, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, terbufos | Cohort | United States | Female spouses of pesticide applicators in the AHS Total (n = 29,325) OP pesticide use (n = 7589) No OP pesticide use (n = 21,736) | Self-administered questionnaires on OP pesticide exposure | Ever versus never OP pesticide use: Malathion: RR: 2.04 (95% CI: 1.14–3.36) Any OP pesticide: RR: 1.27 (95% CI: 0.70–2.30) Not more than 10 exposed thyroid cancer cases for other OP pesticides so RR not calculated. |
Author (Year) | EDC Type | Study Design | Country | Investigated Population | Measurement of Exposure | Association with Thyroid Cancer |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lee et al. (2004) [122] | Alachlor | Cohort | United States | AHS (n = 49,980) Alachlor exposed applicators (n = 26,510) Non-exposed applicators (n = 23,470) | Self-administered exposure assessment questionnaire | Alachlor exposed population: SIR: 1.26 (95% CI: 0.61–2.33) Alachlor unexposed population: SIR: 0.90 (95% CI: 0.33–1.97) Exposed vs. unexposed: RR: 1.63 (95% CI: 0.42–6.37) |
Acquavella et al. (2004) [123] | Alachlor | Cohort | United States | Muscatine manufactoring workers Mortality analysis (n = 1206) | The State Health Registry of Iowa, Personnel records | No thyroid cancer case reported in this study |
Beane Freeman et al. (2011) [126] | Atrazine | Cohort | United States | AHS (n = 57,310) Atrazine use (n = 17,305) | Self-administered questionnaires on pesticide exposure | Intensity-weighted lifetime days of use in the highest quartile versus lowest quartile: RR: 4.30 (95% CI: 1.19–15.57) |
Lerro et al. (2016) [127] | Atrazine, dicamba, metolachlor carbaryl | Cohort | United States | AHS female spouses (n = 31,055) Thyroid cancer cases (n = 104) | Self-administered questionnaires on pesticide exposure | Atrazine: RR: 2.00 (95% CI: 0.88–4.57) Dicamba: RR: 2.34 (95% CI: 1.03–5.35) Metolachlor: RR: 2.22, 95% CI: 0.92–5.35) Carbaryl: RR: 0.61, 95% CI: 0.36–1.03 |
Lerro et al. (2018) [55] | Chlorimuron-ethyl, carbaryl, metalaxyl | Cohort | United States | AHS (n = 53,096) | Self-administered questionnaires on pesticide exposure | HR: 0.52 (95% CI: 0.28–0.96) (Papillary thyroid cancer) High exposure to Carboryl (>median intensity-weighted days HR: 0.30 (95% CI: 0.08–0.53)) Metalaxyl: HR: 2.03 (95% CI: 1.16–3.52) |
Nordby et al. (2005) [132] | Mancozeb | Cohort | Norway | Central population register in Norway (n = 105,403 female farmers) (n = 131,243 male farmers) Thyroid cancer case: 319 | Population registry | Potato farming (yes vs. no): Thyroid cancer: RR: 0.87 (95% CI 0.69–1.10) Papillary subgroup: RR: 0.89 (95% CI: 0.67–1.18) Fungal forecasts: 0 seasons: ref 1–2 seasons: RR: 1.01 (95% CI: 0.71–1.43) 3–5 seasons: RR: 1.16 (95% CI: 0.76–1.77) 6–13 seasons: RR: 1.27 (95% CI: 0.83–1.93) |
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Alsen, M.; Sinclair, C.; Cooke, P.; Ziadkhanpour, K.; Genden, E.; van Gerwen, M. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Thyroid Cancer: An Overview. Toxics 2021, 9, 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9010014
Alsen M, Sinclair C, Cooke P, Ziadkhanpour K, Genden E, van Gerwen M. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Thyroid Cancer: An Overview. Toxics. 2021; 9(1):14. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9010014
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlsen, Mathilda, Catherine Sinclair, Peter Cooke, Kimia Ziadkhanpour, Eric Genden, and Maaike van Gerwen. 2021. "Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Thyroid Cancer: An Overview" Toxics 9, no. 1: 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9010014