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Volume 14
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10.3390/toxics14010019
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Groundwater Driving Factors Identification and Its Associated Human Health Risk Assessment in a Metropolitan City of Southwest China

by
Xiaoyan Zhao
1,2,3,
Huan Luo
1,2,3,
Rongwen Yao
1,2,3,
Zhan Xie
1,2,3,
Si Chen
4,
Lizhou Zhang
5,
Yunhui Zhang
1,2,3,
Yangshuang Wang
1,2,3 and
Yang Liu
5,*
1
Faculty of Geosciences and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China
2
Yibin Research Institute, Southwest Jiaotong University, Yibin 644000, China
3
Sichuan Province Engineering Technology Research Center of Ecological Mitigation of Geohazards in Tibet Plateau Transportation Corridors, Chengdu 611756, China
4
Observation and Research Station of Ecological Restoration for Chongqing Typical Mining Areas, Ministry of Natural Resources, Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources, Chongqing 401120, China
5
Chongqing Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Chongqing 401120, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Toxics 2026, 14(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010019
Submission received: 3 November 2025 / Revised: 1 December 2025 / Accepted: 18 December 2025 / Published: 24 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Topic Water-Soil Pollution Control and Environmental Management)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Health risks associated with groundwater deterioration have become increasingly prominent worldwide. Accurate assessment of human health risks associated with groundwater is a critical component of groundwater development and utilization, particularly in large metropolitan areas with high water resource demands. In our study, 37 groundwater samples were collected from the main urban areas of Chongqing, the largest city in southwest China, to identify the groundwater driving factors and their associated human health risk. The primary hydrochemical facies in the study area is Ca–HCO3. Groundwater hydrochemistry is primarily controlled by silicate weathering, carbonate (dolomite and calcite) dissolution, and anthropogenic activities such as industrial and agricultural activities. The hazard index (HI) caused by NO3− and NO2− was higher than the safety standard and exhibited potentially noncarcinogenic risk for children in the north and the west of the study area. The KDE-based Monte Carlo simulation method showed a high reliability in human health risk assessment, with all mean values of the original dataset falling within their corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of generated data. The achievement can provide valuable insights for groundwater risk mitigation and resource management in Chongqing’s main urban areas, as well as in other metropolitan regions worldwide.
Keywords: groundwater; human health risk; hydrochemistry; kernel density method groundwater; human health risk; hydrochemistry; kernel density method

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhao, X.; Luo, H.; Yao, R.; Xie, Z.; Chen, S.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y. Groundwater Driving Factors Identification and Its Associated Human Health Risk Assessment in a Metropolitan City of Southwest China. Toxics 2026, 14, 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010019

AMA Style

Zhao X, Luo H, Yao R, Xie Z, Chen S, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Liu Y. Groundwater Driving Factors Identification and Its Associated Human Health Risk Assessment in a Metropolitan City of Southwest China. Toxics. 2026; 14(1):19. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010019

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Xiaoyan, Huan Luo, Rongwen Yao, Zhan Xie, Si Chen, Lizhou Zhang, Yunhui Zhang, Yangshuang Wang, and Yang Liu. 2026. "Groundwater Driving Factors Identification and Its Associated Human Health Risk Assessment in a Metropolitan City of Southwest China" Toxics 14, no. 1: 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010019

APA Style

Zhao, X., Luo, H., Yao, R., Xie, Z., Chen, S., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., & Liu, Y. (2026). Groundwater Driving Factors Identification and Its Associated Human Health Risk Assessment in a Metropolitan City of Southwest China. Toxics, 14(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010019

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