The Use of Red Mud in Agricultural Soil Cadmium Remediation: A Critical Review

Sun, Weiwei; Xie, Wenyi; Wang, Lei; Wang, Lei; Gong, Yang; Li, Xuwei; Wang, Chi; Yan, Jiali; Lin, Xiaochen

doi:10.3390/toxics14010016

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The Use of Red Mud in Agricultural Soil Cadmium Remediation: A Critical Review

by

Weiwei Sun

^1,†,

Wenyi Xie

^2,†

,

Lei Wang

³,

Lei Wang

²,

Yang Gong

²,

Xuwei Li

²,

Chi Wang

¹,

Jiali Yan

^1,* and

Xiaochen Lin

^2,*

¹

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Chuzhou University, Chuzhou 239000, China

²

Nanjing Institute of Environmental Science, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China, Nanjing 210042, China

³

Ecological Environment Bureau of Chuzhou City, Chuzhou 239000, China

^*

Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.

^†

These authors contributed equally to this work.

Toxics 2026, 14(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010016

Submission received: 9 November 2025 / Revised: 12 December 2025 / Accepted: 16 December 2025 / Published: 23 December 2025

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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Abstract

Red mud is a highly alkaline solid waste with an annual emission of over 200 million tons, which requires large-scale utilization methods. Soil Cd remediation is a global concern, due to its high toxicity and strong mobility. Given red mud’s potential for soil Cd remediation, this study reviews its basic characteristics, the mechanisms of soil Cd immobilization by red mud, and the use of red mud-based passivators for agricultural soil Cd remediation. In general, red mud regulates soil pH, thus increasing the soil’s Cd adsorption capacity; provides abundant surface active sites for adsorption and complexation with soil Cd; introduces cations to immobilize Cd via ion exchange; and enriches Cd-resistant microbe species to reduce soil Cd toxicity. Furthermore, the potential environmental risks and suggestions on red mud application are discussed. Further research should focus on improving the remediation effectiveness of red mud on cadmium-contaminated agricultural soil, demonstrating its long-term efficacy and economic costs, and proposing practical technical models and standards for application.

Keywords: red mud; agricultural soil; Cd immobilization; soil remediation

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MDPI and ACS Style

Sun, W.; Xie, W.; Wang, L.; Wang, L.; Gong, Y.; Li, X.; Wang, C.; Yan, J.; Lin, X. The Use of Red Mud in Agricultural Soil Cadmium Remediation: A Critical Review. Toxics 2026, 14, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010016

AMA Style

Sun W, Xie W, Wang L, Wang L, Gong Y, Li X, Wang C, Yan J, Lin X. The Use of Red Mud in Agricultural Soil Cadmium Remediation: A Critical Review. Toxics. 2026; 14(1):16. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010016

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sun, Weiwei, Wenyi Xie, Lei Wang, Lei Wang, Yang Gong, Xuwei Li, Chi Wang, Jiali Yan, and Xiaochen Lin. 2026. "The Use of Red Mud in Agricultural Soil Cadmium Remediation: A Critical Review" Toxics 14, no. 1: 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010016

APA Style

Sun, W., Xie, W., Wang, L., Wang, L., Gong, Y., Li, X., Wang, C., Yan, J., & Lin, X. (2026). The Use of Red Mud in Agricultural Soil Cadmium Remediation: A Critical Review. Toxics, 14(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics14010016

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

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The Use of Red Mud in Agricultural Soil Cadmium Remediation: A Critical Review

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