Associations Between Individual Health Risk Perceptions and Biomarkers of PAH Exposure Before and After PM2.5 Pollution in the Suburbs of Chiang Mai Province
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
2.3. Survey Instrument
2.4. Monitoring of PM2.5 Concentrations
2.5. Biological Sample Collection
2.6. Urinary 1-Hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) Metabolite Analysis
2.6.1. Urine Sample Collection
2.6.2. Standard Chemicals and Reagents
2.6.3. Analysis of Urinary 1-Hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) Metabolites by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection (HPLC-FLD)
2.6.4. Urinary Creatinine Analysis
2.7. BPDE-DNA Measurement
2.8. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The Socioeconomic and Health-Related Characteristics of the Population
3.2. Seasonal Variation in PM2.5 Levels Across Subdistricts
3.3. Comparison of 1-Hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) and BPDE Levels Across Occupations During Low (Visit 1)- and High (Visit 2)-PM2.5 Seasons
3.4. Impact of Pollution Levels on Risk Knowledge and Preventive Behaviors
3.5. Impact of Pollution Levels on Public Awareness, Health Perception, and Preventive Behaviors
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
PM2.5 | Particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 |
PAHs | Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons |
BPDA | Benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide |
FEV1/FVC | Forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) to forced vital capacity (FVC) |
1-OHP | 1-Hydroxypyrene |
NTAQHI | Northern Thailand Air Quality Health Index |
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Characteristic | n | % | Characteristic | n | % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age group | Gender identity | ||||
≤49 years | 21 | 14.0 | Female | 115 | 76.7 |
50–59 years | 47 | 31.3 | Male | 35 | 23.3 |
≥60 years | 82 | 54.7 | |||
Occupation | Education level | ||||
Employees and workers | 80 | 53.3 | Primary education | 83 | 55.3 |
Farmers | 41 | 27.3 | Secondary education | 56 | 37.3 |
Private business/others | 29 | 19.3 | Bachelor’s or higher | 11 | 7.3 |
Monthly income (THB) | Smoking status | ||||
<5000 | 74 | 49.3 | Non-smoker | 128 | 85.3 |
5001–10,000 | 65 | 43.3 | Current/former smoker | 22 | 14.7 |
>10,000 | 11 | 7.4 | |||
Alcohol consumption | Family history | ||||
Never | 96 | 64.0 | Diabetes | 46 | 30.9 |
Occasionally (≤4×/month) | 41 | 27.3 | Cardiovascular disease | 45 | 30.0 |
Frequently (≥2×/week) | 13 | 8.7 | Cancer | 26 | 17.3 |
Exercise frequency | Chronic diseases | ||||
No exercise | 41 | 27.3 | Any chronic disease | 91 | 60.7 |
1–4 times/week | 83 | 55.3 | Diabetes | 46 | 49.5 |
Daily | 26 | 17.3 | High blood pressure | 35 | 38.5 |
High blood fat | 40 | 44.0 | |||
Asthma | 9 | 9.9 | |||
Other (thyroid, gout, etc.) | 12 | 13.2 |
Occupation | 1-OHP (μmol/mol Cre) | BPDE (ng/mL) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low-PM2.5 Season Mean ± S.D. | High-PM2.5 Season Mean ± S.D. | p-Value | Low-PM2.5 Season Mean ± S.D. | High-PM2.5 Season Mean ± S.D. | p-Value | |
Private workers and others (n = 32) | 0.15 ± 0.27 | 0.59 ± 0.79 | <0.001 | 1.4 ± 2.16 | 1.02 ± 1.18 | 0.23 |
Employees and laborers (n = 77) | 0.30 ± 0.71 | 0.90 ± 1.30 | <0.001 | 1.69 ± 2.42 | 0.94 ± 1.53 | 0.02 |
Farmers (n = 41) | 0.13 ± 0.10 | 1.06 ± 1.53 | <0.001 | 1.35 ± 1.04 | 1.01 ± 1.40 | 0.018 |
All participants (n = 150) | 0.22 ± 0.52 | 0.89 ± 1.27 | <0.001 | 1.55 ± 2.06 | 0.98 ± 1.42 | 0.0001 |
Dimensions | Questions | Factor Loading 1 | Factor Loading 2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Environmental Risk Knowledge | The general perception of burning as a cause of pollution | Q1.1 The cause of the smog problem in Chiang Mai is all kinds of burning. | 0.436 | 0.756 |
Q1.2 Open burning is one of the causes of dirty air because there are contaminants in the air such as smoke, dust. | 0.762 | 0.615 | ||
Q1.3 Chiang Mai City is located in a lowland basin, so the air is not well-ventilated, causing dust to cover the city. | 0.578 | 0.611 | ||
Q1.4 During winter, the air is still and low, causing more pollution than at other times. | 0.672 | 0.283 | ||
Q1.5 Dust from construction or factories must be removed before being released into the atmosphere. | 0.648 | 0.254 | ||
Perceived health impacts | Q1.6 Fine particles from various types of burning can damage the respiratory system of people. | 0.864 | / | |
Q1.7 People in areas with polluted air are more likely to suffer from lung diseases than people in other areas. | 0.772 | 0.843 | ||
Environmental and economic impacts | Q1.8 Air pollution causes soil and water quality to deteriorate. | 0.334 | 0.224 | |
Q1.9 Smog causes traffic accidents. | 0.557 | 0.23 | ||
Q1.10 Smog causes poor visibility in flights, preventing planes from taking off or landing. | 0.333 | 0.634 | ||
Q1.11 Chiang Mai loses a lot of economic income from air pollution. | 0.729 | 0.639 | ||
Government response and regulations | Q1.12 People lose a lot of health care expenses from air pollution. | 0.39 | 0.914 | |
Q1.13 Local officials have the power to order a ban on open burning. Those who fail to comply with the order may be subject to punishment. | 0.842 | 0.91 | ||
Perceived Risk and Responsibility | Environmental awareness | Q2.1 Burning pollutes the air in the area where it is burned and spreads the pollution to other areas. | 0.431 | 0.998 |
Q2.2 All types of burning make the air in Mueang Chiang Mai hotter. | 1.063 | 0.999 | ||
Waste management | Q2.3 Reducing the amount of garbage in your home reduces air pollution. | 0.495 | 0.7 | |
Q2.4 Repairing and reusing damaged items reduces air pollution. | 0.974 | 0.386 | ||
Q2.5 Sorting garbage before throwing it away can solve the problem of air pollution. | 1.084 | 1.17 | ||
Community and personal responsibility | Q2.6 Everyone should avoid burning. | / | 1.103 | |
Q2.7 Everyone should help plant trees. | 0.694 | 0.403 | ||
Q2.8 Everyone should help monitor garbage burning in the community. | / | / | ||
Symptom Attribution | Physical symptoms | Q3.1 Eye irritation. | 0.792 | 0.312 |
Q3.2 Skin irritation. | 0.488 | 0.78 | ||
Respiratory symptoms | Q3.3 Respiratory irritation such as coughing, sneezing, chest tightness. | 0.851 | 0.833 | |
Q3.4 Feeling short of breath. | 0.442 | 0.673 | ||
Q3.5 Reported pneumonia diagnosis . | 0.673 | 1.07 | ||
Neurological symptoms | Q3.6 Feeling Faint/Lightheaded. | 0.876 | 0.834 | |
Q3.7 Reported loss of consciousness. | 0.956 | 1.049 | ||
Q3.8 Feeling dizzy. | 0.821 | 0.572 | ||
Q3.9 Having poor visibility while driving. | 0.496 | 0.605 | ||
Protective Behavioral Intentions | Preventive actions | Q4.1 Avoid outdoor exercise or stay in open areas. | 0.31 | / |
Q4.2 Avoid burning of any kind. | 1.007 | 0.228 | ||
Q4.3 Reduce the amount of household waste. | 0.187 | / | ||
Q4.4 Close the doors and windows of the house to prevent dust. | 0.455 | 0.575 | ||
Environmental improvements | Q4.5 Use water to wash around the house to reduce the amount of dust. | 0.468 | 1.246 | |
Q4.6 Help plant trees. | 0.599 | 0.33 | ||
Safety and health impacts | Q4.7 Having an accident caused by smog on the roadside. | / | 0.52 | |
Q4.8 If driving a vehicle, turn off the engine when parked. | 0.871 | 0.905 | ||
Q4.9 Have an annual health check to monitor health. | 0.142 | 1.148 | ||
Health Communication and Comprehension | Knowledge and understanding | Q5.1 I can read knowledge, diagrams, or specific terms about air pollution, such as PM2.5, Air Quality Index (AQI), etc., with understanding. | 0.357 | 0.937 |
Q5.2 I can easily understand and know the explanations about PM2.5 dust from various media. | 0.987 | 0.407 | ||
Q5.3 I understand the explanations about how to reduce the health impacts of PM2.5 dust that are published in various places. | 0.704 | 1.136 | ||
Q5.4 I understand the causes and health impacts of the problem of fine dust in the air. | 0.592 | 0.527 | ||
Application and Personal Information | Q5.5 I know and understand enough about PM2.5 dust to be able to use it to protect my health and that of others. | 0.873 | 0.341 | |
Communication and Advocacy | Q5.6 I can explain to others about the level of PM2.5 dust that affects health. | 0.954 | 0.671 | |
Q5.7 I am open to advice on preventing and reducing the impacts of fine dust and can explain it to others. | 0.776 | 1.003 |
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Kausar, S.; Cao, X.; Yadoung, S.; Wongta, A.; Zhou, K.; Kosashunhanan, N.; Hongsibsong, S. Associations Between Individual Health Risk Perceptions and Biomarkers of PAH Exposure Before and After PM2.5 Pollution in the Suburbs of Chiang Mai Province. Toxics 2025, 13, 491. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060491
Kausar S, Cao X, Yadoung S, Wongta A, Zhou K, Kosashunhanan N, Hongsibsong S. Associations Between Individual Health Risk Perceptions and Biomarkers of PAH Exposure Before and After PM2.5 Pollution in the Suburbs of Chiang Mai Province. Toxics. 2025; 13(6):491. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060491
Chicago/Turabian StyleKausar, Sobia, Xianfeng Cao, Sumed Yadoung, Anurak Wongta, Kai Zhou, Natthapol Kosashunhanan, and Surat Hongsibsong. 2025. "Associations Between Individual Health Risk Perceptions and Biomarkers of PAH Exposure Before and After PM2.5 Pollution in the Suburbs of Chiang Mai Province" Toxics 13, no. 6: 491. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060491
APA StyleKausar, S., Cao, X., Yadoung, S., Wongta, A., Zhou, K., Kosashunhanan, N., & Hongsibsong, S. (2025). Associations Between Individual Health Risk Perceptions and Biomarkers of PAH Exposure Before and After PM2.5 Pollution in the Suburbs of Chiang Mai Province. Toxics, 13(6), 491. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13060491