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Volume 13
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Increased PM2.5 Caused by Enhanced Fireworks Burning and Secondary Aerosols in a Forested City of North China During the 2023–2025 Spring Festivals

by
Qingxia Ma
1,2,3,
Guoqing Zhao
1,2,3,
Kaixin Cheng
1,2,3,
Yunfei Wu
4,
Renjian Zhang
5,
Lei Gu
1,2,
Jing Xue
6,
Wanfu Feng
7,8,
Jiliang Zhou
9,
Xinzhi Shen
9 and
Dexin Liu
1,2,*
1
College of Geographical Science, Faculty of Geographical Science and Engineering, Henan University, Zhengzhou 450046, China
2
Key Laboratory of Geospatial Technology for the Middle and Lower Yellow River Regions, Ministry of Education, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China
3
Henan Key Laboratory of Air Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Kaifeng 475004, China
4
State Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment and Extreme Meteorology (AEEM), Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
5
Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
6
School of Ecology and Environment, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710129, China
7
The Forest Science Research Institute of Xinyang, Xinyang 464031, China
8
Henan Jigongshan Forest Ecosystem Observation and Research Station, Xinyang 464031, China
9
Xinyang Ecological Environment Monitoring Center of Henan Province, Xinyang 464000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Toxics 2025, 13(12), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121009
Submission received: 15 October 2025 / Revised: 10 November 2025 / Accepted: 19 November 2025 / Published: 21 November 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

Fireworks burning (FB) constitutes a major but short-lived source of PM2.5 during the Chinese Spring Festival, significantly deteriorating air quality in certain regions. This study was conducted to evaluate its impact through real-time monitoring of PM2.5 chemical compositions in a forestry city (Xinyang) during the pre-fireworks and fireworks periods at the Spring Festival of 2023–2025. During the fireworks period, PM2.5 concentrations increased by 10.5–226.4% compared to pre-fireworks levels, of which the concentrations of secondary inorganic aerosols (SIA), K and Cl− rose by 1.6–4.8, 1.9–14.7 and 1.5–8.1 times, and they accounted for 33.2–47.7%, 6.7–12.5% and 3.8–6.4% of PM2.5, respectively. Correspondingly, PM2.5/CO and SIA/CO ratios in 2023–2025 elevated by factors of 1.4–2.3 and 1.1–3.4, indicating distinct enhancements in secondary inorganic aerosols formation. Additionally, acidity of PM2.5, RH and Ox also increased during fireworks. Collectively, higher sulfur and nitrogen oxidation ratios (SOR and NOR) during the fireworks period under the combined effects of high RH, Ox and acidity conditions indicated a greater conversion of secondary inorganic aerosols. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) analysis confirmed that FB and secondary aerosols (SA) source levels during fireworks increased by 2.5–19.3 and 1.9–4.4 times compared to pre-fireworks values. This study underscores the need for implementing stringent management of fireworks and secondary formation mitigation to reduce PM2.5 concentrations during the Spring Festival.
Keywords: PM2.5; source apportionment; secondary aerosol formation; fireworks emission PM2.5; source apportionment; secondary aerosol formation; fireworks emission

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Ma, Q.; Zhao, G.; Cheng, K.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, R.; Gu, L.; Xue, J.; Feng, W.; Zhou, J.; Shen, X.; et al. Increased PM2.5 Caused by Enhanced Fireworks Burning and Secondary Aerosols in a Forested City of North China During the 2023–2025 Spring Festivals. Toxics 2025, 13, 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121009

AMA Style

Ma Q, Zhao G, Cheng K, Wu Y, Zhang R, Gu L, Xue J, Feng W, Zhou J, Shen X, et al. Increased PM2.5 Caused by Enhanced Fireworks Burning and Secondary Aerosols in a Forested City of North China During the 2023–2025 Spring Festivals. Toxics. 2025; 13(12):1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121009

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ma, Qingxia, Guoqing Zhao, Kaixin Cheng, Yunfei Wu, Renjian Zhang, Lei Gu, Jing Xue, Wanfu Feng, Jiliang Zhou, Xinzhi Shen, and et al. 2025. "Increased PM2.5 Caused by Enhanced Fireworks Burning and Secondary Aerosols in a Forested City of North China During the 2023–2025 Spring Festivals" Toxics 13, no. 12: 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121009

APA Style

Ma, Q., Zhao, G., Cheng, K., Wu, Y., Zhang, R., Gu, L., Xue, J., Feng, W., Zhou, J., Shen, X., & Liu, D. (2025). Increased PM2.5 Caused by Enhanced Fireworks Burning and Secondary Aerosols in a Forested City of North China During the 2023–2025 Spring Festivals. Toxics, 13(12), 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13121009

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