Next Article in Journal
Influence of Different Sweeteners on the Stability of Anthocyanins from Cornelian Cherry Juice
Previous Article in Journal
Influence of Alcohol Content and Storage Conditions on the Physicochemical Stability of Spirit Drinks
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Foods
Volume 9
Issue 9
10.3390/foods9091265
foods-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Food Security and Hygiene Practice among Adolescent Girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria

by
Ruth Charles Shapu
1,2,
Suriani Ismail
1,*,
Norliza Ahmad
1,
Poh Ying Lim
1 and
Ibrahim Abubakar Njodi
3
1
Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
2
College of Nursing and Midwifery, Damboa Road, Maiduguri, 600252 Maiduguri, Nigeria
3
Department of Physical and Health Education, University of Maiduguri, 600230 Maiduguri, Nigeria
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Foods 2020, 9(9), 1265; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091265
Submission received: 11 June 2020 / Revised: 25 June 2020 / Accepted: 6 July 2020 / Published: 10 September 2020
(This article belongs to the Section Food Security and Sustainability)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Inadequate food security contributes to poor health outcome for all, including adolescent girls. The study aims at determining the level of food security and hygiene among adolescent girls. A school-based cross-sectional study was carried out among adolescent girls aged 10 to 19 years old from six schools in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire using KoBoCollect Toolbox between June and July 2019. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify the predictors of food security and hygiene among respondents. A majority of the respondents (73.5%) were in a very low food security level. Three factors were significantly associated with food security level, these included schools (p = 0.007), age of mother (p = 0.004), and occupation of mother (p < 0.001). School (p = 0.003), age (father p = 0.017; mother; p = 0.012), hygiene (p = 0.005), and occupation of mother (p = 0.002) were predictors of food security. About (46.6%) of respondents had poor hygiene practice, school (p = 0.016) was significantly associated with hygiene practice. School (p = 0.019; and p = 0.005) and food security (p = 0.009) were predictors of hygiene practice. This study reveals a high prevalence of low food security among adolescent girls.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood, often divided into early (10–13 years), middle (14–16 years), and late (17–19 years) adolescent stages [1]. Globally an estimated 821 million people (one in every nine people) are malnourished as a result of food insecurity [2]. In developing countries, adolescents are exposed to environmental factors such as food insecurity and hygiene that may influence their growth, development, and well-being [3]. Everyone needs food to have appropriate nutritional status and also to sustain life [4]. Food insecurity and poor hygiene has become a problem among low-income households in developing and underdeveloped countries globally [5]. People do not have economic, social, and physical access to sufficient and nutritious food that can meet their dietary needs for an active and healthy life. Food must be available, accessible, utilized adequately, and in stable condition to meet nutritional demand [6].
Food security is a common problem among low-income households in developing and underdeveloped countries [5]. Food security is a priority, as malnutrition is a contributing factor to morbidity, mortality, reduced productivity, and poor cognitive development [7]. The global growth of population, the changes in climate, the rising price of food, and insurgency have a severe impact on food security [8]. In 2019 and 2020, the portion of the population facing food insecurity increased, and between 112 and 123 million people across 50 countries in the world were in crisis or in the worst form of food insecurity, with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Sudan reflecting acute food insecurity. The emergent severity of economic shocks and drought in countries such as Haiti, Pakistan, and Zimbabwe were found to be drivers of food insecurity. About 183 million people in 47 countries were classified in stressed food insecurity condition [9]. In 2019, the acute food insecurity level was almost 5 million (5%) of the population in 16 states analyzed with federal capital territory (FCT) inclusive in Nigeria. In Nigeria, in the three northeastern states affected by insecurity, about 3 million people from Borno (1.8 million), Yobe (945,000), and Adamawa state (297,000) were in an acute food insecurity level [9]. Food insecurity is a contributing factor to poor health outcomes and deficiency of nutrients among adolescents most likely to be due to inadequate intake of nutrients [10,11,12].
Food insecurity normally exists where there are limitations or uncertainty in the availability of adequate foods and in the ability to secure foods in an acceptable way [13,14]. About 37 million people from 11 African countries were declared food insecured in 2017 with the largest population from the north-eastern part of Nigeria, Congo, Somalia, and South Sudan. About 70% of the people of Borno were food insecured with some local governments still in the emergency phase, this has an impact on the internally displaced and host communities, especially households, that are entirely dependent on the market rather than on food production as shown in Figure 1 [6].
The provision of food continuously has remained a serious challenge, as food is one of the basic needs of humanity for optimal nutrition [15]. In the low-income household, the burden of food insecurity is more among adolescents than in younger children [16]. Food insecurity has negative consequences and also affects all age groups, including adolescents. Adolescents girls from food insecured households tend to have lower academic performance and poor health and nutritional status [17,18,19,20]. Adolescent girls are at risk of becoming malnourished due to poor dietary intake. They are likely to have a low birth weight baby, which can impact the next generation as the prevalence of low birth weight babies is more among adolescent girls, as shown in Figure 2 [10,21,22].
Globally about 2.3 billion people do not have the essential sanitation services, nearly 892 million individuals are still practicing open defecation, and approximately 844 million people lack access to a good source of drinking water [23,24]. Lack of proper water facilities, water storage, water treatment, hand washing, and hygiene practices affects the health outcome of children under 18 years old. The long-term adverse effect of infection such as worm infestation, diarrhea, and dehydration attributed to poor water, sanitation, and hygiene conditions contributes to impaired learning ability among children under 18 years [25].
Assessing the magnitude of food security and hygiene practice of adolescent girls in the Northeast, this study will provide baseline data and the need for intervention. This study aims at determining the level of food security and hygiene among adolescent girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria.

2. Materials and Methods

The details of the study design and methodology are explained in a research article titled “Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Adolescent Girls towards Reducing Malnutrition in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria: Cross-Sectional Study” [26]. A brief information of the study design is given below.
This was a school-based cross-sectional study carried out among adolescent girls 10–19 years old in six secondary schools. The schools include Government Girls Secondary School Yerwa (Yerwa), Government Girls College Maiduguri (GGC), Government Girls Secondary School Maiduguri (GGSS), Shehu Garbai Day Secondary School (SGDSS), Bulabulin Day Secondary School (BDSS), and Zajeri Day Secondary school (ZDSS) in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. The main occupations of the state are farming/fishing and trading. In 2017, only 8.3% of the populace consumed from their crop and animal production, the remaining relied on purchased food due to increased displacement of the people from their own homes and farmland to places with limited farms for agricultural activities [27]. The sample size was 612; two-stage random sampling was used to select the school and the individual respondent.
A questionnaire through respondent’s interview using KoBoCollect Toolbox was used for data collection. KoBoCollect Toolbox is a data collection tool developed by Harvard, the application can run on any Android device either phone or tablet where data collected were stored in cloud storage together with the global positioning system (GPS) for the location of each school, and later exported to SPSS for analysis [28]. Information on sociodemographic characteristics was collected, details of sociodemographic characteristics were explained in a research article titled “Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Adolescent Girls towards Reducing Malnutrition in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria: Cross-Sectional Study” [26]. A food security questionnaire was adopted from food security for older children consisting of nine statements with options “a lot”, “sometimes”, and “never”. Never was scored “1”, sometimes “2”, and a lot “3” in the last 30 days [29]. Never was recoded “0”, sometimes and a lot weres recorded “1”. The total food security score was 9. Respondents who scored 0–1 were considered food secured, those with 2–5 were regarded as low food secured, and those with 6–9 were considered very low food secured, respectively [30]; these questions are shown in Table 1.
The hygiene section consists of five statements with options, choose one. Hygiene statements and characteristics are presented in the result section (Table 5). Frequency and percentage were used for each hygiene item. Scores <median were considered poor hygiene, while scores ≥median score were considered good hygiene.
Data analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 25 used to solve research problems. Frequency and percentage were used for the distribution of each statement. Chi-square was used to determine the association of sociodemographic characteristics with food security and hygiene; multiple logistic regression was used to determine the predictors of hygiene, while multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the predictors of food security. Data with p < 0.25 in simple logistic regression were analyzed in multiple logistic regression. Variables with p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant in this study.
The Ethical Committee for Research involving Human Subjects of Universiti Putra Malaysia (JKEUPM) UPM/TNCPI/RMC/JKEUPM/1.4.18.2 gave ethical approval, and permission for various schools was obtained from the Ministry of Education Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. Pan African Clinical Trials Registry (PACTR201905528313816).

3. Results

A total of 612 respondents were included in the study, the respondents were randomly selected based on the inclusion criteria of the study. About 562 respondents consented and were interviewed. The response rate for this study was 92%. The detailed sociodemographic characteristics of respondents were explained in a research article titled “Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Adolescent Girls towards Reducing Malnutrition in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria: Cross-Sectional Study” [26].

3.1. Food Security

3.1.1. Food Security Distribution of Respondents

Table 1 shows the distribution of food security statements among respondents. The median, interquartile range (IQR) for food security was 8.0 (4.0). Almost three-quarters of the respondents did worry that food at home would run out before the family got money to buy more food sometimes (74.7%); in some cases, food bought ran out, and they did not have money to get more (69.9%); for others, their meals only included a few kinds of cheap foods because the family was running out of money to buy food (70.1%); some were not able to eat a balanced meal because the family did not have enough money (76.0); others ate less because the family did not have enough money to buy food (67.6); sometimes, the size of the meals was cut down because the family did not have enough money for food (62.6%); some skipped a meal because the family did not have enough money for food (63.0%); and others were hungry but did not eat because the family did not have enough food (63.0%). Table 2 reveals that a majority of respondents (73.5%) were in a very low food security level.

3.1.2. Association and Predictors of Food Security among Respondents

Association between Sociodemographic Characteristics and Food Security

Table 3 shows the association of sociodemographic characteristics and hygiene with food security level. Three factors were significantly associated with food security level, these included schools (p = 0.007), age of mother (p = 0.004), occupation of mother (p < 0.001).

Predictors of Food Security among Respondents

Factors with p < 0.25 in simple multinomial logistic regression were tested in multiple multinomial logistic regression, including school, age of adolescent, place of residence, monthly income, head of household, age of the father, education of father, age of mother, education of mother, occupation of mother, family type, and hygiene.
Table 4 identified five factors that were significant predictors of food security. Respondents in BDSS compared to ZDSS were less likely to be in a low food security level compared to a very low food security level (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 0.306, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.140–0.671, p = 0.003). Respondents with age of father and mother between 35 and 44 years compared to ≥45 years were more likely to be in low food security level compared to very low food security level (AOR = 2.610, 95% CI: 1.187–5.736, p = 0.017; AOR = 2.180, 95% CI: 1.191–3.993, p = 0.012). Respondents with poor hygiene compared to good hygiene were more likely to be in low food security level compared to very low food security level (AOR = 1.979, 95% CI: 1.228–3.187, p = 0.005). Respondents with the age of mother between 35 and 44 years compared to ≥45 years were less likely to be in a food secured level compared to a very low food security level (AOR = 0.414, 95% CI: 0.187–0.917, p = 0.030) Respondents whose mothers were civil servants compared to housewives were more likely to be in a food secured level compared to a very low food security level (AOR = 4.144, 95% CI: 1.665–10.312, p = 0.002).

3.2. Hygiene Practice

3.2.1. Hygiene Distribution of Respondents

Table 5 describes the hygiene of respondents. A high number of respondents (49.3%) reported borehole as their main source of water, (54.3%) used private latrine for defecating, (89.7%) answered correctly on hand-washing practice, (38.3%) used a clean, covered container to keep their drinking water, while (50.5%) of respondents used a clean cloth to strain their drinking water to make it safe for use at home. The median (IQR) for hygiene score was 10.0 (3.0). Poor hygiene was reported by (46.6%) of respondents.

3.2.2. Association and Predictors of Hygiene among Respondents

Association between Sociodemographic Characteristics and Hygiene

Table 6 showed association of sociodemographic characteristics and food security with hygiene level. School (p = 0.016) was significantly associated with hygiene.

Predictors of Hygiene among Respondents

Simple logistic regression was used to assess the association of sociodemographic characteristics, food security with hygiene. Factors with p < 0.25 in simple logistic regression were tested in multiple logistic regression, including school, age of adolescents, class, monthly income, education father, occupation father, education mother, occupation mother, family type, and food security level.
Table 7 showed that two factors were statistically significant in predicting hygiene. Respondents in SGDSS and ZDSS were less likely to have good hygiene compared Yerwa (AOR = 0.472, 95% CI: 0.252–0.884, p = 0.019; AOR = 0.416, 95% CI: 0.227–0.762, p = 0.005). Respondents in a low food secured level were less likely to have good hygiene compared to those in a very low food secured level (AOR = 0.537, 95% CI: 0.337–0.855, p = 0.009).

4. Discussion

Food security is essential in achieving good health among adolescent girls, neglecting the aspect of food security may have implications for achieving sustainable development goals: goal 1 (eradicating poverty), goal 2 (ending hunger and all forms of malnutrition; attaining food security; promoting sustainable agriculture; addressing the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant, and lactating mothers), goal 3 (guarantee healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages) [31,32]. Food security and nutritional status influences the growth and development of adolescents as it becomes woven in an intergenerational cycle of malnutrition. Food insecurity deters adolescents from attaining a normal nutritional status, therefore, it is important that adolescent girls become well-nourished at all stages of growth and development. The effects of malnutrition in women are borne throughout their lifecycle and through generations. Nutritional inadequacy through food insecurity during the period of adolescence can affect their present and future health and well-being, as it is intrinsically linked to the health and well-being of their offspring [33,34].
In this study, 69.9% of respondents reported running out of food and not having enough money to get more, 76% not able to eat a balanced meal because the family did not have enough money, 67.6% ate less because there was no money to buy food, 62.6% cut their meals because there was not enough money for food, 63.0% were hungry but did not eat as shown in Table 1. The result in this study was higher than the study conducted in Jordan [35,36]. This may be due to non-availability of sufficient food and financial resources as a result of the displacement of the populace caused by insecurity, which has limited crop production and food availability. More so, low awareness on coping strategies could be a contributing factor.
This study showed that more than half of respondents (73.5%) were in a very low food security level presented in Table 2, this was higher than research conducted in Canada [37], Dhaka city [7], Southeast, Nigeria [12,38], Ethiopia [39], Boston [40], Ethiopia [41,42,43], Australia [44], and the U.S. [45]. The differences in the outcome of the study may be due to the humanitarian crisis experienced by the region from 2009 to date that has led to the displacement of people from their homes and farmlands. Families in studies with lower percentages of very low food secured level might be receiving sufficient government aid and more so differences in demographic characteristics could contribute to the small number of very low food secured level.
Age of mother was statistically associated with food security as described in Table 3. This was similar to a study conducted in Iran [46], food insecurity increases with increase in age, as the age of the mother increases, the number of children also increases as well as the size of the household, these can affect the quality and quantity of food consumed by households thereby increasing their risk of becoming food insecured [46]. Occupation of mother was significantly associated with food security. This is in line with studies in Korea [47] and Ecuador [48], although food insecurity is not merely determined by financial poverty, occupation of the mother increases household income, contributes to the household purchasing power, helps in diversifying their food, and improves their socioeconomic status, thereby enabling them to become food secured [46,49]. The occupation of the mother is an important determinant of food insecurity especially in low-income families [50].
In this study, occupation of the mother was a predictor of food security, this concurs with the study conducted in the Southeast, Nigeria [12] and Ethiopia [49]. Mother’s occupation was associated with food secured level compared to very low food secured level as mothers who earn a salary are better able to manage the household, thereby reducing the level of food insecurity among adolescent girls. Furthermore, this study hypothesizes that school, age of the father, age of the mother, and hygiene were significant predictors of food security among adolescent girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, as shown in Table 4.
A majority of respondents (49.3%) in Table 5 used a borehole as their main source of drinking water. The result obtained was higher than the result obtained from Oyo State, Nigeria [51], and lower than the result obtained from Dangila town, Ethiopia [52]. More than half of respondents (54.3%) used private latrine for defecating. This was lower than the study conducted in Tanzania [53]. A majority of respondents in this study (89.7%) answered correctly on hand-washing practice. The result is in line with the study conducted in Oyo State, Nigeria [51], Minch town, Ethiopia [54], Angolela, Ethiopia [55], Dangila town, Ethiopia [52], Southern Ethiopia [56], and higher than the result obtained from Ethiopia [52] and Klang valley, Malaysia [57]. These may be due to awareness on the need for good hygiene practice to mitigate bacterial infection as a result of the influx of people from the local government areas displaced by humanitarian crisis. In this study, about (6.9%) boiled their water before drinking. The findings from Ibadan were higher [51]. A majority of respondents (50.5%) used a clean cloth to strain their drinking water to make it safe at home. This was lower than the result obtained in Ibadan, Nigeria [51]. About (42.9) allow the dirt to settle at the bottom of the container. This was higher than the outcome from Ibadan [51]. Allowing water to settle down and the use of clean cloth to strain their drinking water were the common ways of treating water, with a lower rate of boiling water. This could be associated with low awareness on the effective ways of treating water before drinking.
Poor hygiene was reported by (46.6%) of respondents. This was higher than results obtained from Ethiopia [54] and India [58]. Poor hygiene practice in this study may be due to inadequate awareness about good sources of drinking water, proper disposal of waste, effective storage, and water treatment.
The study in Table 6 hypothesizes that school was significantly associated with hygiene practice, while school and food security level were significant predictors of hygiene among adolescent girls, as presented in Table 7.

Limitation

The study was a self-report of food security and hygiene statements that might lead to recall bias.

5. Conclusions

Drawing conclusions from this study, there is need for creating awareness on food security to prevent adolescent girls from the negative impact of growth, development, and undernutrition. There is also need for further research on food security as a protective factor in the outcome of adolescent health. The findings of this study recommend food security and hygiene intervention targeting adolescents to address food security- and hygiene-related problems in Borno State. Further studies on predictors and consequences of food security and hygiene are recommended. Poverty alleviation initiatives should be integrated with food security programmes to promote availability, accessibility, and consumption of diverse food to reduce the multitude of consequences of undernutrition. This study provides a significant contribution to the food security status and hygiene practice among adolescent girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria.
The outcome of this study reveals a high prevalence of very low food security, with almost half of the girls having poor hygiene practice. School, age of the father and mother, occupation of mother, and hygiene were found to be significant predictors of food security, while school and food security were found to be significant predictors of hygiene among adolescent girls. There is need for further research to evaluate the prevalence of food security among adolescent girls in the remaining government schools, private schools, and also those out of school within the state capital to be able to generate enough evidence for policymakers. There should be a health education intervention study that is deeper and more practical in addressing the factors hindering adolescent girls from good hygiene practice. Schools should provide an access point to hand washing material to be monitored regularly.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.C.S. and S.I.; methodology, R.C.S. and S.I.; software, R.C.S. and P.Y.L.; validation, R.C.S., S.I., P.Y.L., N.A. and I.A.N.; formal analysis, R.C.S., P.Y.L. and S.I.; investigation, R.C.S.; resources, R.C.S.; data curation, R.C.S.; writing—original draft preparation, R.C.S.; writing—review and editing, R.C.S., S.I., P.Y.L., N.A. and I.A.N.; visualization, R.C.S., S.I., P.Y.L., N.A. and I.A.N.; supervision, S.I., P.Y.L., N.A. and I.A.N.; project administration, S.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to appreciate Hussaini Garba Dibal, (Department of Physical and Health Education, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria) and Elizabeth Tanko (Department of Nutrition, College of Nursing and Midwifery, Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria) who assisted in validating the study instruments. The authors want to acknowledge Joseph Bangnikon (Food Security and Livelihood Advisor, International Medical Corps, Washington DC) and Majinga Samuel Amos (Federal Research Institute, Nigeria) for their technical input. The authors also want to appreciate the management of the six Secondary Schools (Government Girls College Maiduguri, Government Girls Secondary School Maiduguri, Government Girls Secondary School Yerwa, Shehu Garbai School, Zajeri Day Secondary School, and Bulabulin Day Secondary School), their enumerators and the respondents who participated in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. UNICEF. The State of the world’s Children 2011: Adolescence An Age of Opportunity; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2011; ISBN 978-92-806-4555-2. [Google Scholar]
  2. FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP; WHO. Food Security and Nutrition in the World the State of Building Climate Resilience for Food Security and Nutrition; FAO: Rome, Italy; IFAD: Rome, Italy; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA; WFP: Rome, Italy; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018; ISBN 9789251305713. [Google Scholar]
  3. Belachew, T.; Hadley, C.; Lindstrom, D.; Getachew, Y.; Duchateau, L.; Kolsteren, P. Food insecurity and age at menarche among adolescent girls in Jimma Zone Southwest Ethiopia: A longitudinal study. Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 2011, 9, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. FAO; IFAD; UNICEF. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against Economic Slowdowns and Downturns, Rome, FAO; FAO: Rome, Italy; IFAD: Rome, Italy; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2019; ISBN 9789251315705. [Google Scholar]
  5. FAO; IFAD; UNICEF. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security. Rome, FAO; FAO: Rome, Italy; IFAD: Rome, Italy; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  6. WFP. Global Report on Food Crisis 2018, Food Security Information Network; WFP: Rome, Italy, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  7. Alam, S.S.; Rahman, N.; Lima, L.S.; Haque, M.; Islam, K. Food security status of adolescent girls in selected urban slum. MOJ Public Heal. 2018, 7, 247–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. International Food Policy Research Institute Food Security|IFPRI 2014; IFPRI: Washington, DC, USA, 2014.
  9. Gobal Network Against Food Crisis. In Global Report on Food Crises; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2020.
  10. Kirkpatrick, S.I.; Tarasuk, V. Food Insecurity Is Associated with Nutrient Inadequacies among Canadian Adults and Adolescents. J. Nutr. 2008, 138, 604–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Jacob, I. Food Insecurity in Nigeria: Way Forward. An Int. Multidiscip. J. Ethiop. 2013, 7, 26–35. [Google Scholar]
  12. Ukegbu, P.; Nwofia, B.; Ndudiri, U.; Uwakwe, N. Food Insecurity and Associated Factors Among University Students. Food Nutr. Bull. 2019, 40, 271–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2000; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2000; ISBN 9251044791. [Google Scholar]
  14. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food Insecurity in the World; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  15. World Health Organization. Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding.; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2003; pp. 1–30. [Google Scholar]
  16. Moffitt, R.A.; Ribar, D.C. Child age and gender differences in food security in a low-income U.S. inner-city population. Eur. Econ. Rev. 2018, 109, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Fatmaningrum, D.; Roshita, A.; Februhartanty, J. Coping strategies for food insecurity among adolescent girls during the lean season in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia: A qualitative study. Br. J. Nutr. 2016, 116, 42–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Kersten, H.B.; Bennett, D. A Multidisciplinary Team Experience with Food Insecurity & Failure to Thrive. J. Appl. Res. Child. 2012, 3, 1–22. [Google Scholar]
  19. Hartline-Grafton, H. and Dean, O. The Impact of Poverty, Food Insecurity, and Poor Nutrition on Health and Well-Being. Washington, DC. Food Res. Action Cent. 2017, 7, 1–14. [Google Scholar]
  20. Gundersen, C.; Ziliak, J.P. Food insecurity and health outcomes. Health Affairs 2015, 34, 1830–1839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Cordeiro, L.S.; Wilde, P.E.; Semu, H.; Levinson, F.J. Household Food Security Is Inversely Associated with Undernutrition among Adolescents from Kilosa, Tanzania. J. Nutr. 2012, 142, 1741–1747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  22. Sharma, A.K.; Chhabra, P.; Gupta, P.; Aggarwal, Q.P.; Lyngdoh, T. Pregnancy In Adolescents: A Community Based Study. Indian J. Prev. Soc. Med Vol. 2003, 34, 1–9. [Google Scholar]
  23. World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  24. Chattopadhyay, A.; Sethi, V.; Nagargoje, V.P.; Saraswat, A.; Surani, N.; Agarwal, N.; Bhatia, V.; Ruikar, M.; Bhattacharjee, S.; Parhi, R.N.; et al. WASH practices and its association with nutritional status of adolescent girls in poverty pockets of eastern India. BMC Womens. Health 2019, 19, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Gottfried, M.A. Evaluating the Relationship Between Student Attendance and Achievement in Urban Elementary and Middle Schools: An Instrumental Variables Approach. Am. Educ. Res. J. 2010, 47, 434–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Shapu, R.C.; Ismail, S.; Ahmad, N.; Ying, L.P.; Abubakar, I. Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Adolescent Girls Towards Reducing Malnutrition in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria: Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1–21. [Google Scholar]
  27. WFP-United Nations World Food Programme Emergency Food Security. In Assessment in Three North East of Nigeria Nigeria Data Collected in February, 2017 Emergency Food Security Assessment in Three North East States; WFP: Rome, Italy, 2017; pp. 1–38.
  28. Susan Paul, N.S.; Mathew, P.; Johns, F.; Abraham, J. The feasibility of using remote data collection tools in field surveys. Int. J. Community Med. Public Heal. 2018, 5, 81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Carol, L.; Connell, M.N.; Kristi, L.; Lofton, K.Y. Self-Administered Food Security Survey Module for Children Ages 12 Years and Older. J. Nutr. 2006, 12, 134. [Google Scholar]
  30. Shtasel-Gottlieb, Z.; Palakshappa, D.; Yang, F.; Goodman, E. The Relationship Between Developmental Assets and Food Security In Adolescents From A Low-Income Community. J. Adolesc. Heal. 2016, 56, 215–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. United nation. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; United nation: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  32. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD). Global Trends: Challenges and Opportunities in the Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals; Global Trends: Geneva, Switzerland, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  33. Das, J.K.; Lassi, S.; Hoodbhoy, Z.; Salam, A. Nutrition for the Next Generation: Older Children and Adolescents. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2018, 72, 56–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. UNICEF. Food Systems for Children and Adolescents; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  35. Bawadi, H.A.; Tayyem, R.F.; Dwairy, A.N.; Al-akour, N. Prevalence of Food Insecurity among Women in Northern Jordan Prevalence of Food Insecurity among Women in Northern Jordan. J. Heal. Popul. Nutr. 2012, 30, 49–55. [Google Scholar]
  36. Niclasen, B.; Petzold, M.; Schnohr, C.W. Adverse health effects of experiencing food insecurity among Greenlandic school children. Int. J. Circumpolar Health 2013, 72, 20849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Lane, G.; Nisbet, C.; Vatanparast, H. Food insecurity and nutritional risk among canadian newcomer children in Saskatchewan. Nutrients 2019, 11, 1744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Charles, U.; Josephine, O.; Ngozi, O.; Chidimma, O.; Charles, I. Factors that Enable Food Insecurity among Orphan and Vulnerable Households in South-East Nigeria. J. Food Secur. 2017, 5, 223–231. [Google Scholar]
  39. Tariku, A.; Gonete, K.A.; Bikes, G.A.; Alemu, K. Household food insecurity predisposes to undiversified diet in northwest Ethiopia: Finding from the baseline survey of nutrition project, 2016. BMC Res. Notes 2019, 12, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Baer, T.E.; Scherer, E.A.; Fleegler, E.W.; Hassan, A. Food Insecurity and the Burden of Health-Related Social Problems in an Urban Youth Population. J. Adolesc. Heal. 2015, 57, 601–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Jebena, M.G.; Lindstrom, D.; Lachat, C.; Belachew, T.; Kolsteren, P. The effect of food insecurity on health status of adolescents in Ethiopia: Longitudinal study. BMC Public Health 2017, 17, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  42. Belachew, T.; Lindstrom, D.; Gebremariam, A.; Jira, C.; Hattori, M.K.; Lachat, C.; Huybregts, L.; Kolsteren, P. Predictors of chronic food insecurity among adolescents in Southwest Ethiopia: A longitudinal study. BMC Public Health 2012, 12, 604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  43. Belachew, T.; Hadley, C.; Lindstrom, D.; Gebremariam, A.; Michael, K.W.; Getachew, Y.; Lachat, C.; Kolsteren, P. Gender Differences in Food Insecurity and Morbidity Among Adolescents in Southwest Ethiopia. Pediatrics 2011, 127, e398–e405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Whatnall, M.C.; Hutchesson, M.J.; Patterson, A.J. Predictors of food insecurity among Australian university students: A cross-sectional study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  45. Nikolaus, C.J.; Schierer, M.; Ellison, B.; Gundersen, C. Grit is Associated with Food Security among US Parents and Adolescents. Am. J. Heal. Behav. 2019, 43, 207–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Mortazavi, Z.; Dorosty, A.R.; Eshraghian, M.R.; Ghaffari, M.; Ansari-Moghaddam, A.; Mohammadi, M. Household Food Insecurity in Southeastern Iran: Severity and Related Factors. Int. J. Food Sci. 2017, 2017, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Nakitto, M.; Asano, K.; Choi, I.; Yoon, J. Dietary intakes of adolescents from food insecure households: Analysis of data from the 6th(2013–2015) Korea national health and nutrition examination survey. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2017, 11, 507–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Weigel, M.M.; Armijos, R.X.; Racines, M.; Cevallos, W. Food insecurity is associated with undernutrition but not overnutrition in ecuadorian women from low-income urban neighborhoods. J. Environ. Public Health 2016, 2016, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  49. Motbainor, A.; Worku, A.; Kumie, A. Level and determinants of food insecurity in East and West Gojjam zones of Amhara Region, Ethiopia: A community based comparative cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  50. Mohamadpour, M.; Sharif, Z.M.; Keysami, M.A. Food Insecurity, Health and Nutritional Status among Sample of Palm-plantation Households in Malaysia. Ournal Heal. Popul. Nutr. 2012, 30, 291–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Amadi, A.N.; Azuamah, Y. Assessment of Water Sanitation and Hygiene Practices in Ibadan, Nigeria. Int. J. Res. 2018, 2, 94–100. [Google Scholar]
  52. Demilew, Y.M.; Emiru, A.A. Under nutrition and associated factors among school adolescents in Dangila Town, Northwest Ethiopia: A cross sectional study. Afr. Health Sci. 2018, 18, 756–766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  53. Ismail, A.; Darling, A.M.; Mosha, D.; Fawzi, W.; Sudfeld, C.; Sando, M.M.; Noor, R.A.; Charles, J.; Vuai, S. Prevalence and risk factors associated with malnutrition among adolescents in rural Tanzania. Trop. Med. Int. Health 2020, 25, 89–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Besha, B.; Guche, H.; Chare, D.; Amare, A.; Kassahun, A.; Kebede, E.; Yesuf, A. Assessment of Hand Washing Practice and it’s Associated Factors among First Cycle Primary School Children in Arba Minch Town, Ethiopia, 2015. Epidemiology 2016, 6, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Vivas, A.; Gelaye, B.; Aboset, N.; Kumie, A.; Berhane, Y.; Williams, M.A. Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) of Hygiene among School Children in Angolela, Ethiopia. J. Prev. Med. Hyg. 2010, 51, 73–79. [Google Scholar]
  56. Wolde, T.; Belachew, T. Predictors of thinness and improved dietary diversity among School Aged Children in Southern Ethiopia. Nutr. Diet. Suppl. 2019, 11, 49–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Saeed, S.; Ghebrehiwot, L.; Juni, M.H. Factors Associated With Hand Washing Practices Among Adolescents Yemeni Students in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Int. J. Public Heal. Clin. Sci. 2018, 5, 164–177. [Google Scholar]
  58. Sarkar, M. Personal hygiene among primary school children living in a slum of Kolkata, India. J. Prev. Med. Hyg. 2013, 54, 153–158. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
Foods 09 01265 g001 550
Figure 1. Food insecurity scale [2].
Figure 1. Food insecurity scale [2].
Foods 09 01265 g001
Foods 09 01265 g002 550
Figure 2. Negative consequences of food insecurity on adolescent girls.
Figure 2. Negative consequences of food insecurity on adolescent girls.
Foods 09 01265 g002
Table
Table 1. Food security distribution among respondents (n = 562).
Table 1. Food security distribution among respondents (n = 562).
Food Security StatementNeverSometimesA lot
n%n%n%
Did you worry that food at home would run out before your family got money to buy more?8815.742074.7549.6
Did the food that your family bought run out, and you did not have money to get more?11921.239369.9508.9
Did your meals only include a few kinds of cheap foods because your family was running out of money to buy food?6511.639470.110318.3
How often were you not able to eat a balanced meal because your family did not have enough money?6812.142776.06711.9
Did you have to eat less because your family did not have enough money to buy food?12522.238067.65710.1
Has the size of your meals been cut because your family did not have enough money for food?15727.935262.6539.4
Did you have to skip a meal because your family did not have enough money for food?16228.835463.0468.2
Were you hungry but didn’t eat because your family did not have enough food?16028.535463.0488.5
Did you not eat for a whole day because your family did not have enough money for food?24744.027649.1396.9
Table
Table 2. Food security level of respondents (n = 562).
Table 2. Food security level of respondents (n = 562).
Food Security LevelFrequency (n)Percentage (%)
Very low food security level41373.5
Low food security level10819.2
Food secured level417.3
Table
Table 3. Factors associated with food security among respondents (n = 562).
Table 3. Factors associated with food security among respondents (n = 562).
VariablesVery Low Food Security
n (%)/Mean ± SD		Low Food Security
n (%)/Mean ± SD		Food Secured
n (%)/Mean ± SD		X2/tp-Value
Name of school
Yerwa76 (18.4)24 (22.2)8 (19.5)24.287 a0.007 *
GGC55 (13.3)19 (17.9)12 (29.3)
GGSS46 (11.1)14 (13.0)3 (7.3)
SGDSS51 (12.3)13 (12.0)8 (19.5)
BDSS128 (31.0)16 (14.8)5 (12.2)
ZDSS57 (13.8)22 (20.4)5 (12.2)
Age of Adolescent Girls (years) 4.385 a0.356
Early adolescents69 (16.7)25 (23.1)6 (14.6)
Middle adolescents213 (51.6)45 (41.7)22 (53.7)
Late adolescents131(31.7)38 (35.2)13 (31.7)
Class 1.534 a0.957
JSS194 (22.8)27 (25.0)11 (26.8)
JSS280 (19.4)21 (19.4) 9 (22.0)
SS1113 (27.4)25 (23.1)9 (22.0)
SS2126 (30.5)35 (32.4)12 (29.3)
Ethnicity 10.273 a0.852
Bura33 (8.0)9 (8.3)6 (14.6)
Kanuri133 (32.2)30 (27.8)10 (24.4
Hausa41 (9.9)12 (11.1)5 (12.2)
Marghi41 (9.9)8 (7.4)3 (7.3)
Shuwa21 (5.1)5 (4.6)2 (4.9)
Fulani40 (9.7)8 (7.4)4 (9.8)
Chibok16 (3.9)2 (1.9)1 (2.4)
Gwoza56 (13.6)24 (22.2)7 (17.1)
Other ethnic groups32(7.7)10 (9.3)3 (7.3)
Religion 0.721 a0.697
Christianity88 (21.3)20 (18.5)7 (17.1)
Islam 325 (78.7)88 (81.5)34 (82.9)
Place of residence 3.529 a0.171
Rural50 (12.1)20 (18.5)4 (9.8)
Urban363 (87.9)88 (81.537 (90.2)
Household size 1.067 a0.899
≤5 members34 (8.2)9 (8.3)3 (7.3)
6–8 members151 (36.6)43 (39.8)13 (31.7)
≥9 members228 (55.2)56 (51.9)25 (61.0)
Monthly income 4.777 a0.573
Less than ₦18,000116 (28.1)31 (28.7)16 (39.0)
₦18,000–₦30,000143 (34.6)41 (38.0)16 (39.0)
₦31,000–₦50,000107 (25.9)25 (23.1)7 (17.1)
₦51,000 and above47 (11.4)11 (10.2)2 (4.9)
Head of household -0.330
Father 375 (90.8)96 (88.9)39 (95.1)
Mother 25 (6.1)6 (5.6)0 (0.0)
Relations13 (3.1)6 (5.6)2 (4.9)
Age group of father (years) 3.846 a0.146
35 to 4433 (8.3)15 (14.7)4 (10.0)
≥45365 (91.7)87 (85.3)36 (90.0)
Education of father 13.237 a0.104
No education38 (9.3)17 (16.0)2 (4.9)
Informal education60 (14.7)12 (11.3)10 (24.4)
Primary education13 (3.2)1 (0.9)2 (4.9)
Secondary education137 (33.7)43 (40.6)13 (31.7)
Tertiary education159 (39.1)33 (31.1)14 (34.1)
Occupation of fathers -0.942
Civil service150 (37.2)33 (32.4)13 (31.7)
Trading/business207 (51.4)58 (56.9)23 (56.1)
Farming31 (7.7)7 (6.9)3 (7.3)
Other occupation c15 (3.7)4 (3.9)2 (4.9)
Age group of mother (years) 15.495 a0.004 *
≤3476 (18.6)16 (15.2)8 (20.00)
35 to 44199 (48.8)68 (64.8)13 (32.5)
≥45133 (32.6)21 (20.0)19 (47.5)
Education of mothers 8.711 a0.367
No education72 (17.6)26 (24.5)3 (7.3)
Informal education89 (21.7)22 (20.8)12 (29.3)
Primary education40 (9.8)12 (11.3)6 (14.6)
Secondary education140 (34.1)32 (30.2)15 (36.6)
Tertiary education69 (16.8)14 (13.2)5 (12.2)
Occupation of mothers 26.140 a<0.001 *
Civil service51 (12.7)19 (18.1)16 (41.0)
Trading/business171 (42.4)50 (47.6)11 (28.2)
Farming23 (5.7)2 (1.9)2 (5.1)
Housewives158 (39.2)234 (32.4)10 (25.6)
Family type 6.746 a0.150
Monogamy218 (52.8)47 (43.5)16 (39.0)
Polygamy166 (40.2)50 (46.3)23 (56.1)
single parenting29 (7.0)11 (10.2)2 (4.9)
Hygiene 5.811 a0.055
Poor hygiene180 (43.6)60 (55.6)22 (53.7)
Good hygiene233 (56.4)48 (44.4)19 (46.3)
Yerwa: Government Girls Secondary School Yerwa; GGC: Government Girls College, Maiduguri; GGSS: Government Girls Secondary School, Maiduguri; SGDSS: Shehu Garbai Day Secondary School; BDSS: Bulabulin Day Secondary School; ZDSS: Zajeri Day Secondary School * significant (p < 0.05), a chi-square, JSS1: Junior secondary school 1; JSS2: Junior secondary school 2; SS1; Senior secondary 1; SS2: Senior secondary 2, other occupations c: Malami (voluntary Quranic teacher).
Table
Table 4. Multinomial logistic regression for predictors of food security.
Table 4. Multinomial logistic regression for predictors of food security.
Variables Low Food SecuredFood Secured
BCrude Odds RatioSE95% CIp-ValueBAdjusted Odds RatioSE95% CIp-Value
Lower BoundUpper BoundLower BoundUpper Bound
Very low food securedRef Ref
Intercept−2.181 0.419 <0.001−2.401 0.620 <0.001
Name of school
Yerwa −0.1300.8780.3820.4161.8560.734−0.1360.8730.6660.2363.2220.838
GGC−0.2070.8130.4090.3651.8110.6120.5911.8060.6050.5525.9080.328
GGSS−0.3560.7010.4550.2871.7100.435−0.4500.6380.7750.1402.9100.561
SGDSS−0.3750.6880.4260.2991.5830.3790.1651.1790.6430.3354.1560.797
BDSS−1.1840.3060.4000.1400.6710.003 *−0.8520.4270.6700.1151.5860.204
ZDSSRef Ref
Age group of father (years)
35 to 440.9592.6100.4021.1875.7360.017 *0.5311.7000.6670.4606.2880.427
≥45Ref Ref
Age group of mother (years)
≤340.1231.1310.4240.4932.5970.771−0.4240.6540.5280.2321.8420.422
35 to 440.7792.1800.3091.1913.9930.012 *−0.8830.4140.4060.1870.9170.030 *
≥45Ref Ref
Occupation of mothers
Civil service0.5441.7220.3670.8393.5340.1381.4224.1440.4651.66510.3120.002 *
Trading/business0.4951.6400.2740.9602.8040.0700.0891.0930.4600.4432.6960.846
Farming−0.8600.4230.7900.0901.9890.2760.2451.2780.8490.2426.7500.773
HousewivesRef Ref
Hygiene
Poor hygiene0.6821.9790.2431.2283.1870.005 *0.4181.5190.3630.7463.0930.249
Good knowledgeRef Ref
Yerwa: Government Girls Secondary School Yerwa; GGC: Government Girls College, Maiduguri; GGSS: Government Girls Secondary School, Maiduguri; SGDSS: Shehu Garbai Day Secondary School; BDSS: Bulabulin Day Secondary School; ZDSS: Zajeri Day Secondary School. * Significant at p < 0.05, SE = standard error, CI = confidence interval, Ref = reference category, B = unstandardized beta, Cox and Snell R square = 0.126, Nagelkerke R square = 0.164, classification percentage = 74.1%, receiver operating characteristics = 75.5%, model fitting p < 0.001, goodness-of-fit Pearson p = 0.271, deviance p = 0.875.
Table
Table 5. Hygiene distribution of respondents (n = 562).
Table 5. Hygiene distribution of respondents (n = 562).
Hygiene StatementCharacteristicsFrequency (n)Percentage (%)
What is your current source of drinking waterTap9316.5
Borehole27749.3
Well122.1
Dam15427.4
Tanker50.9
Truck213.7
Where do you dispose human waste (defecate) at homePrivate latrine30554.3
Shared latrine23742.2
Open defaecation203.6
What are the times when you wash your hands with soap or ash or sand and clean waterCorrect answer50489.7
Incorrect answer5810.3
I keep my water in aClean container12622.4
Covered container22139.3
A clean, covered container21538.3
In which of the following ways do you treat your drinking water to make it safe at homeBoil the water396.9
Use a clean cloth to strain it28450.5
Allow the dirt to settle at the bottom of the container23942.5
Table
Table 6. Factors associated with hygiene.
Table 6. Factors associated with hygiene.
VariablesLevel of HygieneX2/tp-Value
Poor n (%)Good n (%)
Name of school 14.017 a0.016 *
Yerwa43 (16.4)65 (21.7)
GGC34 (13.0)52 (17.3)
GGSS27 (10.3)36 (12.0)
SGDSS42 (16.0)30 (10.0)
BDSS66 (25.2)83 (27.7)
ZDSS50 (19.1)34 (11.3)
Age of adolescent girls (years) 2.663 a0.264
Early adolescents54 (20.6)46 (15.3)
Middle adolescents126 (48.1)154 (51.3)
Late adolescents82 (31.3)100 (33.3)
Class 3.679 a0.298
JSS166 (25.2)66 (22.0)
JSS249 (18.7)61 (20.3)
SS175 (28.6)72 (24.0)
SS272 (27.5)101 (33.7)
Ethnicity 3.198 a0.921
Bura22 (8.4)26 (8.7)
Kanuri76 (29.0)97 (32.3)
Hausa27 (10.3)31 (10.3)
Marghi 23 (8.8)29 (9.7)
Shuwa12 (4.6)16 (5.3)
Fulani23 (8.8)29 (9.7)
Chibok10 (3.8)9 (3.0)
Gwoza47 (17.9)40 (13.3)
Other tribes22 (8.4)23 (7.7)
Religion 0.085 a0.771
Christianity55 (21.0)60 (20.0)
Islam 207 (79.0)240 (80.0)
Place of residence 0.391 a0.532
Rural37 (14.1)37 (12.3)
Urban225 (85.9)263 (87.7)
Household size 0.269 a0.874
≤5 members22 (8.4)24 (8.0)
6–8 members99 (37.8)108 (36.0)
≥9 members141 (53.8)168 (56.0)
Monthly income 2.181 a0.536
Less than ₦18,00072 (27.5)91 (30.3)
₦18,000–₦30,00097 (37.0)103 (34.3)
₦31,000–₦50,00061 (23.3)78 (26.0)
₦51,000 and above32 (12.2)28 (9.3)
VariablesLevel of HygieneX2/tp-ValueVariables
Head of household 0.159 a0.924
Father 238 (90.8)272 (90.7)
Mother 15 (5.7)16 (5.3)
Relations9 (3.4)12 (4.0)
Age group of father (years) 0.421 a0.517
35 to 4426 (10.5)26 (8.9)
≥45221 (89.5)267 (91.1)
Education of father 3.481 a0.481
No education28 (10.9)29 (9.8)
Informal education45 (17.5)37 (12.5)
Primary education7 (2.7)9 (3.0)
Secondary education88 (34.2)105 (35.4)
Tertiary education89 (34.6)117 (39.4)
Occupation of fathers 2.190 a0.534
Civil service95 (37.8)101 (34.2)
Trading/business126 (50.2)162 (54.9)
Farming18 (7.2)23 (7.8)
Other occupations c12 (4.8)9 (3.1)
Age group of mother (years) 0.549 a0.760
≤3443 (16.8)57 (19.2)
35 to 44131 (51.2)149 (50.2)
≥4582 (32.0)91 (30.6)
Education of mothers 2.334 a0.675
No education49 (19.0)52 (17.4)
Informal education59 (22.9)64 (21.4)
Primary education25 (9.7)33 (11.0)
Secondary education90 (34.9)97 (32.4)
Tertiary education35 (13.6)53 (17.7)
Occupation of mothers 4.120 a0.249
Civil service48 (18.5)38 (13.2)
Trading/business102 (39.4)130 (45.1)
Farming11 (4.2)16 (5.6)
Housewives98 (37.8)104 (36.1)
Family type 2.032 a0.362
Monogamy128 (48.9)153 (51.0)
Polygamy110 (42.0)129 (43.0)
Single parenting24 (9.2)18 (6.0)
Food security 5.811 a0.055
Very low food secured 180 (68.7)233 (77.7)
Low food secured60 (22.9)48 (16.0)
Food secured22 (8.4)19 (6.3)
* Significant at p < 0.05; a Chi-square; Yerwa: Government Girls Secondary School Yerwa; GGC: Government Girls College, Maiduguri; GGSS: Government Girls Secondary School, Maiduguri; SGDSS: Shehu Garbai Day Secondary School; BDSS: Bulabulin Day Secondary School; ZDSS: Zajeri Day Secondary School; other occupations c: Malami (Voluntary Quranic teacher); JSS1: Junior secondary school 1; JSS2: Junior secondary school 2; SS1; Senior secondary 1; SS2: Senior secondary 2.
Table
Table 7. Predictors of hygiene.
Table 7. Predictors of hygiene.
Variables Simple Logistic RegressionMultiple Logistic Regression
BCrude Odds RatioSE95% CIp-ValueBAdjusted Odds RatioSE95% CIp-Value
Lower BoundUpper BoundLower BoundUpper Bound
Name of school
YerwaRef Ref
GGC0.0121.0120.2950.5671.8050.968−0.0210.9790.3120.5311.8060.947
GGSS−0.1260.8820.3220.4701.6570.696−0.3440.7090.3340.3681.3660.304
SGDSS−0.7500.4730.3090.2580.8670.015 *−0.7510.4720.3200.2520.8840.019 *
BDSS−0.1840.8320.2570.5031.3760.473−0.3310.7180.2730.4201.2270.226
ZDSS−0.7990.4500.2970.2510.8050.007 *−0.8760.4160.3090.2270.7620.005 *
Age of adolescent girls (years)
Early adolescents−0.3590.6990.2500.4281.1400.151------
Middle adolescents0.0021.0020.1910.6891.4580.991------
Late adolescentsRef ------
Class
JSS1−0.3380.7130.2330.4521.1250.146------
JSS2−0.1190.8870.2460.5481.4380.628------
SS1−0.3790.6840.2260.4401.0650.093------
SS2Ref ------
Ethnicity
Bura Ref ------
Kanuri 0.0771.0800.3280.5682.0530.814------
Hausa −0.0290.9720.3910.4512.0920.941------
Marghi 0.0651.0670.4020.4852/3470.872------
Shuwa 0.1211.1280.4790.4412.8870.801------
Fulani 0.0651.0670.4020.4852.3470.872------
Chibok −0.2720.7620.5430.2632.2080.616------
Gwoza −0.3280.7200.3610.3551.4610.363------
Other ethnic groups−0.1230.8850.4160.3921.9980.768------
Religion
ChristianityRef ------
Islam 0.0611.0630.2090.7051.6020.771------
Place of residence
RuralRef ------
Urban0.1561.1690.2500.7171.9060.532------
Household size
≤5 membersRef ------
6–8 members0.0011.0000.3260.5281.8961.000------
≥9 members0.0881.0920.3160.5872.0310.781------
Monthly income
Less than ₦18,000 Ref ------
₦18,000–₦30,000−0.1740.8400.2120.5551.2730.411------
₦31,000–₦50,0000.0121.0120.2330.6411.5960.960------
₦51,000 and above−0.3680.6920.3030.3821.2540.225------
Head of household
Father Ref ------
Mother −0.0690.9330.3700.4521.9280.852------
Relations0.1541.1670.4500.4832.8170.732------
Age group of father (years)
35 to 44−0.1890.8280.2920.4671.4670.517------
≥45Ref ------
Education of father
No education−0.2380.7880.3000.4381.4180.427------
Informal education−0.4690.6250.2630.3741.0470.074------
Primary education−0.0220.9780.5230.3512.7270.966------
Secondary education−0.0970.9080.2020.6111.3480.631------
Tertiary educationRef ------
Occupation of fathers
Civil service0.3491.4180.4640.5713.5160.452------
Trading/business0.5391.7140.4570.7004.1960.238------
Farming0.5331.7040.5420.5894.9260.325------
Other occupations cRef ------
Age group of mother (years)
≤340.1781.1940.2530.7281.9610.482------
35 to 440.0251.0250.1940.7011.4980.899------
≥45Ref ------
Education of mothers
No education−0.3560.7010.2950.3931.2500.228------
Informal education−0.3340.7160.2830.4111.2470.238------
Primary education−0.1370.8720.3430.4451.7080.689------
Secondary education−0.3400.7120.2620.4261.1900.195------
Tertiary educationRef ------
Occupation of mothers
Civil serviceRef ------
Trading/business0.4761.6100.2540.9782.6500.061------
Farming0.6081.8370.4480.7644.4200.174------
Housewives0.2931.3400.2590.8072.2260.257------
Family type
Monogamy0.4661.5940.3340.8283.0670.163------
Polygamy0.4471.5640.3380.8073.0310.186------
Single parentingRef ------
Food security
Very low food secured Ref Ref
Low food secured−0.4810.6180.2180.4030.9470.027 *−0.6220.5370.2370.3370.8550.009 *
Food secured−0.4050.6670.3290.3501.2700.218−0.4730.6230.3470.3161.2300.173
Constant 0.6551.9250.215 0.002
* Significant at p < 0.05, SE = standard error, CI = confidence interval, Ref = reference category, B = unstandardized beta, Cox and Snell R square = 0.083, Nagelkerke R square = 0.111, classification percentage = 58.7%, receiver operating characteristics = 59.8%, model fitting p = 0.003, Hosmer and Lemeshow p = 0.236, Yerwa: Government Girls Secondary School Yerwa; GGC: Government Girls College, Maiduguri; GGSS: Government Girls Secondary School, Maiduguri; SGDSS: Shehu Garbai Day Secondary School; BDSS: Bulabulin Day Secondary School; ZDSS: Zajeri Day Secondary School; Other occupation c = Malami (Voluntary Quranic teacher).

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Charles Shapu, R.; Ismail, S.; Ahmad, N.; Lim, P.Y.; Abubakar Njodi, I. Food Security and Hygiene Practice among Adolescent Girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria. Foods 2020, 9, 1265. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091265

AMA Style

Charles Shapu R, Ismail S, Ahmad N, Lim PY, Abubakar Njodi I. Food Security and Hygiene Practice among Adolescent Girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria. Foods. 2020; 9(9):1265. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091265

Chicago/Turabian Style

Charles Shapu, Ruth, Suriani Ismail, Norliza Ahmad, Poh Ying Lim, and Ibrahim Abubakar Njodi. 2020. "Food Security and Hygiene Practice among Adolescent Girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria" Foods 9, no. 9: 1265. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091265

APA Style

Charles Shapu, R., Ismail, S., Ahmad, N., Lim, P. Y., & Abubakar Njodi, I. (2020). Food Security and Hygiene Practice among Adolescent Girls in Maiduguri Metropolitan Council, Borno State, Nigeria. Foods, 9(9), 1265. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091265

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop