4.1. Milk Yield and Composition
Dietary feeding with SFS and SFSS did not affect milk yield or milk fat percentage, while increased protein percentage, which is in line with previous studies [
14], supports the fact that oilseeds typically do not alter milk yield while inducing variable effects on milk protein levels in dairy ruminants. Similarly, dietary supplementation of sunflower oil (at 1.84% DM) changes neither milk yield nor milk fat concentration of dairy goats [
29]. A recent meta-analysis of 10 experiments with dairy goats [
15] or 33 experiments with dairy cows [
30] also showed that dietary sunflower did not change milk production. However, it should be noted that the overall impact of dietary fat on milk yield is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including fat source, type, dietary level, and lactation stage [
31].
The maintenance of milk production despite dietary lipid supplementation is particularly relevant for commercial dairy operations, as it suggests that the nutritional improvements achieved through both SFS and SFSS feeding could be implemented without adversely affecting production efficiency. In line with our results, it has been shown [
14] that the dietary supplementation with SFS (80 g/d) in Alpine goats, included in a forage-to-concentrate ratio of 60:40, did not alter milk fat and protein content. However, in the present study, milk NFS, protein, and lactose content were enhanced with SFSS (137 g/kg of diet DM) followed by SFS (86 g/kg of diet DM), within a forage-to-concentrate ratio of 57:43. These findings indicate that both SFS and SFSS provided sufficient nitrogen for rumen microbial protein synthesis, which was subsequently reflected in the milk composition [
8]. The superior performance of SFSS over SFS in enhancing milk protein content may be attributed to the fermentation process during silage preparation, which partially breaks down protein-lipid complexes and makes nutrients more available for microbial utilization [
32]. Furthermore, the observed increase in milk protein yield may be attributed to the diet’s potential to induce rumen defaunation of ciliated protozoa, thereby enhancing microbial protein synthesis in the rumen [
33].
In the present study, feeding ewes with two types of sunflower seed (i.e., SFS and SFSS) did not change milk fat. In contrast, results of a meta-analysis [
30] on oilseed supplementation in dairy cows, however, showed that sunflower largely led to a reduction in milk fat, particularly when oil inclusion exceeded 40–50 g/kg DM, which seems to be related to the amount of FA resulting in a high number of intermediate isomers that inhibit the de novo (synthesized a new) synthesis of FA in milk fat. This discrepancy could be explained not only by the disparate responses to dietary lipids among ruminant species, which are linked to differences in rumen microbial communities [
34], but also by the lower inclusion levels in our study compared to those where milk fat depression occurred. Moreover, it is a well-known fact that when the diet contains sufficient amounts of fiber, neither small nor large ruminants exhibit reductions in milk fat production [
12,
35]. Milk fat content remains relatively unaffected when concentrates comprise ≤60% of the diet [
36]. In the present study, the forage-to-concentrate ratio was around 57:47, and both SFS and SFSS diets were associated with high NDF content that likely mitigated the adverse effects of dietary PUFA on rumen cellulolytic bacteria [
8,
12].
4.2. Fatty Acids Profile in Milk and Cheese
Feeding both SFS and SFSS diets was associated with a lower content of short- and medium-chain fatty acids compared to the CTRL group; however, the content of C4:0 (butyric acid) was increased by 5.3% and 14.9% in the SFS and SFSS groups, respectively. This outcome is in agreement with Gómez-Cortés et al. [
37], who supplemented lactating Assaf ewes with 6% sunflower oil (on a DM basis) and observed increased C4:0 along with reduced C6:0–C14:0, as well as with Gómez-Cortés et al. [
37], who fed Manchega ewes a diet containing 6% and 12% extruded linseed and reported similar shifts in the short- and medium-chain FA profile. Greater ruminal butyrate availability under lipid supplementation may contribute to enhanced mammary uptake and secretion of C4:0, as increased ruminal butyrate supply has been shown to elevate milk fat content in lactating dairy cattle [
38]. Importantly, this shift also plays a physiological role in regulating milk fat fluidity; when the content of PUFA in milk increases, SCFA such as C4:0, positioned predominantly at the stereospecific numbering (sn)-3 position of milk triglycerides, help maintain appropriate melting characteristics and ensure secretion stability of milk fat globules [
39]. Butyric acid, a short-chain fatty acid, exhibits antimicrobial properties and has been linked to various beneficial biological activities, including anti-diarrheal, antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, and anti-inflammatory effects [
40]. From a human health perspective, butyric acid serves as a primary energy source for colonocytes and plays a crucial role in maintaining gut barrier function and immune homeostasis [
41].
In agreement with our results, Lashkari et al. [
13] reported that dietary supplementation of SFS decreased de novo synthesized FA in milk fat of dairy cows. Short- and medium-chain fatty acids are synthetized entirely de novo or partially by the mammary gland from acetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate produced in the rumen [
42]. The mechanism underlying this reduction involves the competitive suppression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in fatty acid synthesis, by long-chain FA absorbed from the digestive tract [
43]. It has been found that feeding UFA reduces mammary gland de novo FA synthesis by increasing the uptake of dietary and ruminally derived fatty acids, thereby inhibiting lipogenic enzymes [
44]. However, Luna et al. [
29] found no changes in the levels of FA from C6:0 to C12:0 in goat’s milk following supplementation with different levels of sunflower oil. The discrepancy between studies may be related to differences in the form of sunflower supplementation (oil vs. seeds), inclusion levels, and basal diet composition, which can influence the extent of biohydrogenation in the rumen [
45].
The observed decrease in C18:2 n6 in SFS (28% lower) and SFSS (27% lower) diets, consistent with Vargas-Bello-Pérez et al. [
14], likely resulted from extensive hydrogenation of this FA. This biohydrogenation process is mediated primarily by Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens and other rumen bacteria that convert linoleic acid to stearic acid through various intermediate products, including conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans FA [
43]. Chilliard and Ferlay [
42] found that oilseed C18:2 is more prone to hydrogenation. In the present study, supplementation with SFS and/or SFSS reduced the levels of C12:0, C14:0, and C16:0 fatty acids in both milk and cheese. This reduction may be considered beneficial, as these fatty acids are classified as atherogenic and have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease [
46]. The atherogenic potential of these SFA is attributed to their ability to increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels and promote inflammatory processes in vascular tissues [
47]. Comparable results were observed in studies utilizing oilseeds in dairy goat nutrition [
48].
Our results also indicated that the dietary inclusion of both SFS and SFSS increased the concentration of C18:0 (stearic acid), C18:1 trans-9 (elaidic acid), and C18:1 cis-9 (oleic acid) in both milk and cheese. However, the content of C18:3 n6 and C18:3 n3 in cheese remained unchanged by diet. This is in agreement with a previous meta-analysis [
12] showed the dietary addition of vegetable sources (including sunflower) led to an increase in the concentration of C18:1 c-9 and C18:0 in cheese of sheep. Similarly, feeding goats with oilseeds increased CLA levels in cheese, likely as a result of ruminal biohydrogenation, in which CLA is an intermediate product [
49]. The production of CLA isomers, particularly c9,t11-CLA (rumenic acid), represents one of the most significant health benefits associated with ruminant-derived dairy products, as these compounds possess anti-carcinogenic, anti-atherosclerotic, and immunomodulatory properties [
50].
The high level of C18:0 has been widely reported in products obtained by dairy animals fed with ingredients containing high levels of UFA, testify a microbial biohydrogenation of the dietary MUFA and PUFA [
34]. Duodenal flow of C18:0 has been positively correlated with dietary unsaturated FA intake [
51], suggesting that the increase in milk and cheese C18:1 c-9 content likely resulted from the conversion of C18:0 to C18:1 c-9 via mammary delta-9 desaturase. Notably, in dairy cows, mammary desaturation of C18:0 to C18:1 c-9 is directly proportional to the uptake of C18:0 by the mammary gland [
51]. In the present study, milk and cheese from the SFS and SFSS groups display a more favorable FA profile, characterized by elevated levels of bioactive FA, such as C18:1 c-9, which have been demonstrated to exhibit anti-cancer properties and induce apoptosis in experimental models [
52]. These results were also confirmed by Vargas-Bello-Pérez et al. [
12]. The anti-cancer mechanisms of C18:1 c-9 include the suppression of oncogene expression, particularly HER2/neu, and the enhancement of the effectiveness of anti-cancer drugs through membrane composition modifications [
53].
It has been well established [
54] that the ripening time may be one of the factors affecting the concentration of FA in cheese. However, in the present study, no significant changes in the FA profile of cheese were observed during ripening and storage, except for a decrease in C18:2 n-6c levels throughout the ripening process. This decrease may be attributed to oxidative processes or continued enzymatic modifications by cheese microflora during ripening, particularly lactic acid bacteria that possess lipase and esterase activities [
55].
A meta-analysis [
12] of 14 published articles showed that the dietary supplementation of vegetable sources rich in unsaturated FA, including sunflower, was associated with higher PUFA and a decrease in SFA content in sheep milk and cheese. Previous studies have also demonstrated that milk from both cows [
56] and sheep fed sunflower contains a lower concentration of SFA and a higher concentration of MUFA and PUFA. Likewise, a meta-analysis [
30] reported that incorporating oilseeds into cow diets decreases milk SFA content and increases UFA levels, primarily by modifying rumen fermentation and reducing the production of acetic acid, the main precursor for de novo synthesis of short- and medium-chain SFA. Propionic acid production can increase due to glycerol release from triglyceride lipolysis and changes in dietary carbohydrate composition, altering the acetic-to-propionic acid ratio, favoring UFA content in milk [
30]. The consistency of these findings across different ruminant species suggests fundamental metabolic pathways are governing FA metabolism in response to dietary oilseed supplementation. These include de novo synthesis (synthesized a new) of FA in the mammary gland, desaturation via stearoyl-CoA desaturase, elongation of FA, and modifications in ruminal biohydrogenation of long-chain PUFA [
44,
45]. However, the magnitude of response may vary depending on species-specific differences in digestive physiology and metabolic capacity [
34]. In our study, a favorable outcome is also the fact that AI and n6/n3 were decreased in the SFS and SFSS groups compared to the CTRL, since higher AI and n6/n3 ratios are considered harmful for health [
57], which agrees with Klir Šalavardić et al. [
49] who reported better AI in cheese from goats fed oilseed. The reduction in AI is particularly significant because it indicates a lower potential for the dairy products to contribute to cardiovascular disease risk, with values below 1.0 being considered favorable for human health [
58]. The role of dietary SFA in cardiovascular disease risk remains a topic of debate [
52]. Recent evidence suggests that the health effects of saturated fatty acids may depend on their chain length, food matrix, and overall dietary context rather than their absolute content [
59]. Furthermore, the improved n-6/n-3 ratio contributes to a better balance of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory eicosanoids, which is crucial for maintaining optimal immune function and reducing chronic disease risk [
60]. Overall, our findings suggest that feeding dairy sheep with SFS and/or SFSS may be a viable strategy for producing milk fat with a more favorable FA profile for human health.
4.3. Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Cheese
Dietary inclusion of SFS and/or SFSS did not alter the content of DM, moisture, ash, fat, and protein in cheese. In confirmation, Zhang et al. [
61] showed that the dietary feeding of 260 g/kg SFS to lactating ewes was not associated with changes in fat and protein content of cheese. Similarly, cheese composition was not affected by oilseed inclusion in cow diets [
62,
63]. Also, the protein and ash content of semi-hard cheese were not affected when goats were fed diets enriched with linseed or pumpkin seed [
49]. Likewise, the addition of vegetable oils to goat diets did not alter cheese composition [
64]. The maintenance of basic cheese composition parameters following SFS and/or SFSS despite altered milk FA profiles indicates that the fundamental protein and moisture relationships in cheese matrix formation remain intact. This is crucial for cheese processing standardization and product consistency [
65]. Additionally, in the present study DM of cheese was increased during ripening time, while the moisture decreased. It has been well established that cheese ripening can alter composition by interacting with internal enzymes or producing acidic compounds, which may influence cheese maturity [
20]. It has been well established that the compositional changes during ripening are primarily driven by proteolytic and lipolytic activities of both endogenous milk enzymes and microbial enzymes from starter and non-starter lactic acid bacteria [
66].
In our study, cheese pH was decreased by 9.8% in SFSS, which may be attributed to the presence of organic acids produced during the silage fermentation process that were subsequently transferred through the milk to the cheese matrix. Cheeses with lower pH values, indicating conditions closer to the isoelectric point of casein, tend to exhibit firmer and gummier textures, while those with higher pH levels generally display a more pliable and plastic consistency [
64]. Also, both SFS and SFSS groups had lower shear force, indicating softer cheese. Consistent with our results, de Medeiros et al. [
64] showed that dietary oilseed supplementation for goat resulted in softer cheese. The softening effect may be attributed to the increased proportion of UFA, which have lower melting points and contribute to a more fluid lipid phase within the cheese matrix [
67]. The change in the texture of the dairy products, mainly butter and cheese, following alteration in milk FA composition is an already known fact [
67]. Cheese produced from milk with a lower content of UFA is firmer, less creamy, and elastic [
67]. Thus, increasing UFA concentration in both SFS and SFSS partially explains the lower shear force in these groups. In line with our results, a decrease in butter hardness was reported by Oeffner et al. [
68] for milk from Holstein cows fed diets supplemented with oilseeds. Dietary supplementation of oilseeds for dairy cows was also associated with a softer texture in Raclette cheese [
69].
Color assessment of cheese demonstrated that a* (redness) and b* (yellowness), C* (chroma), and H* (hue angle) were not affected by diets. However, the L* (lightness) of cheese was reduced by 7.8% in the SFSS group. It has been well established [
64] that the addition of oilseeds to the diets may have exerted a positive impact on instrumental color parameters a* and b*. The selective effect on cheese color, specifically the reduced lightness (L*) in the SFSS group, suggests the presence of chromophoric compounds derived from the silage fermentation process. Ensiling can lead to the formation of new chromophoric compounds, which are primarily secondary metabolites or fermentation by-products [
70]. These include phenolic compounds released from the breakdown of lignin and flavonoids, as well as Maillard reaction products formed between residual sugars and amino acids under the mild conditions of silage fermentation. Such chromophoric compounds can survive the silage process, enter the milk via the diet, and ultimately be incorporated into the cheese matrix [
71].
The sensory properties of cheese are linked to various factors, including not only the physicochemical characteristics of milk and the cheesemaking technology but also to the diets fed to animals [
72]. The present study revealed that the sensory evaluation of cheeses from ewes fed CTRL, SFS, and SFSS diets was similar in most attributes, except roughness and humidity. The maintenance of most sensory attributes is crucial for consumer acceptance and indicates that the nutritional improvements achieved through sunflower seed supplementation do not compromise the organoleptic quality of the cheese. Cheeses from SFS ewes showed improved taste and total acceptability, while odor, color, and texture remained unaffected. The improved taste in SFS cheese may be related to the production of flavor compounds during the biohydrogenation process or to the presence of naturally occurring antioxidants in sunflower seeds that enhance flavor stability [
73]. Similarly, it has been reported [
29] that the sensory attributes of the ewe cheeses remained unaffected by diets enriched with sunflower oil. Present results align with those previously reported by Pascual et al. [
74], who reported that cheese made from milk obtained from ewes fed oilseed-supplemented diets had acceptable flavor and sensory properties.
4.4. Microbiology Evaluation of Cheese
The microbiological analysis of cheese remained unaffected by diets. Similarly, Dokou et al. [
63] reported that dietary oilseed supplementation did not affect white cheese microbial count, supporting the conclusion that moderate levels of dietary lipid supplementation are unlikely to disrupt the established microbial balance in cheese. This finding is particularly important as it demonstrates that the dietary modifications did not adversely affect the microbial ecosystem essential for proper cheese ripening and safety [
75]. Also, microbial concentration for all cheeses was similar at 180 days of ripening. This finding is consistent with the results of Schlei et al. [
76] and Beuvier et al. [
75], who reported no significant differences in microbial populations. Temperature fluctuations are a ubiquitous environmental stressor that significantly impacts bacterial growth [
76].
The stability of the microbial profile across treatments can be attributed to several factors. First, the pasteurization process (62.8 °C for 30 min) effectively eliminated pathogenic microorganisms while preserving the beneficial starter cultures that are crucial for cheese development [
20]. Second, the similar pH values and moisture levels across treatments provided equivalent environments for microbial growth and metabolism [
75]. The absence of significant differences in mesophilic bacteria counts is particularly noteworthy, as these organisms are primarily responsible for the primary fermentation of lactose to lactic acid, which establishes the acidic environment necessary for proper cheese ripening. Maintaining a stable microbial population is critical for the shelf life and quality characteristics of cheese [
28]. Consistent mesophilic and fungal counts ensure proper lactose fermentation, lactic acid production, and acidification, which are essential for flavor development, texture stability, and prevention of spoilage or off-flavors. The similar mesophilic populations across all treatments indicate that the altered FA profiles did not interfere with the fundamental fermentation processes [
28]. Furthermore, these are supported by the stable fungal counts throughout the ripening period, which is crucial for food safety and product quality, as elevated fungal populations could lead to off-flavors, texture defects, or potential mycotoxin production [
77]. However, the consistent microbial profile across treatments indicates that the antimicrobial properties of certain FAs present in higher concentrations in treated groups (such as oleic acid and Linoleic acid) did not reach levels that would inhibit beneficial cheese microorganisms [
55].
It is worth noting that some FAs, particularly those with medium-chain lengths, possess antimicrobial properties that can influence cheese microbiota [
78]. The observed reduction in C12:0 and C14:0 in the SFS and SFSS groups could theoretically affect microbial populations, but our results indicate that these changes were not sufficient to cause measurable alterations in the overall microbiological profile. This suggests that the cheese matrix and ripening environment provide sufficient buffering capacity to maintain microbial stability despite moderate changes in fatty acid composition.