Consumer Sensory Perceptions of Natural Ingredients: A Multi-Country Comparison
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participant Profiles
2.2. Questionnaire
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Overall Perceptions of 20 Ingredients as Natural
3.2. Consumer Perception Differences for 20 Ingredients According to Country
3.3. Consumer Perceptions of 20 Ingredients According to Country Clusters
3.4. Consumer Perceptions of 20 Ingredients According to Demographics
3.4.1. Analysis by Age Group
3.4.2. Analysis by Education Level
3.4.3. Analysis by Sex
3.4.4. Analysis by Number of Adults in the Household
3.4.5. Analysis by Number of Children in the Household
4. Discussion
4.1. Overall Consumer Perceptions
4.1.1. Natural Ingredients: Corn, Soybean, and Wheat Flour
4.1.2. Ingredients Generally Considered as Natural: Black Beans, Canola Oil, Pea Flour, Salt, and Sugar
4.1.3. Ingredients Rarely Perceived as Natural: BHA and SAPP
4.1.4. Mixed Natural Ingredient Perceptions
4.1.5. Demographic Characteristics
4.2. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
FDA | U.S. Food and Drug Admonition |
WEIRD | Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic |
CATA | check-all-that-apply |
TRAPD | translation, review, adjudication, pretesting, and documentation |
BHA | butylated hydroxyanisole |
UK | United Kingdom |
USA | United States of America |
SAPP | sodium acid pyrophosphate |
GMO | genetically modified organism |
GM | genetically modified |
HFCS | high-fructose corn syrup |
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Demographic Characteristics | Variables | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Age | 18–34 | 33% |
35–54 | 33% | |
55+ | 33% | |
Education Level | Primary School or Less | 2% |
High School | 25% | |
College or University | 73% | |
Sex | Male | 50% |
Female | 50% | |
Number of Adults Living at Residence | 1 | 10% |
2 | 32% | |
3 | 27% | |
4 | 16% | |
5+ | 14% | |
Number of Children Living at Residence | 0 | 54% |
1 | 26% | |
2 | 15% | |
3+ | 5% |
Ingredient | Frequency of Consumers Perceiving as Natural | Percent (%) |
---|---|---|
Corn | 5988 | 73.10 |
Wheat flour | 5715 | 69.77 |
Soybean | 5656 | 69.05 |
Pea flour | 4814 | 58.77 |
Salt | 4687 | 57.22 |
Black beans | 3354 | 40.95 |
Sugar | 3338 | 40.75 |
Canola oil | 2821 | 34.44 |
Sorghum flour | 2534 | 30.94 |
Corn syrup | 2368 | 28.91 |
Maltodextrins | 1887 | 23.04 |
Molasses | 1620 | 19.78 |
Gluten | 1513 | 18.47 |
Baking soda | 1232 | 15.04 |
Sodium bicarbonate | 1186 | 14.48 |
Xanthan gum | 964 | 11.77 |
Insect powder | 893 | 10.90 |
Lecithin | 712 | 8.69 |
SAPP (Sodium acid pyrophosphate) | 167 | 2.04 |
BHA (Butylated hydroxyanisole) | 117 | 1.43 |
Total | 8191 | 100.00 |
Australia | Brazil | China | India | Japan | Mexico | Peru | Russia | South Africa | Spain | Thailand | United Kingdom | USA | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baking soda | 21.0 b * | 18.1 bc | 16.3 bc | 14.9 bc | 1.7 e | 18.4 bc | 6.3 de | 7.8 de | 12.9 cd | 18.4 bc | 5.6 e | 21.0 b | 33.2 a | <0.0001 |
BHA | 2.2 abc | 1.7 abc | 1.1 bc | 3.0 ab | 0.2 c | 1.4 bc | 0.6 c | 0.2 c | 1.0 bc | 0.6 c | 1.1 bc | 1.6 abc | 3.8 a | <0.0001 |
Black beans | 61.4 ab | 8.1 ef | 12.2 e | 54.6 b | 62.5 ab | 24.1 d | 10.3 ef | 65.2 a | 68.1 a | 36.0 c | 1.1 f | 65.7 a | 62.7 ab | <0.0001 |
Canola oil | 43.3 cd | 45.1 bc | 52.9 ab | 34.3 de | 27.9 ef | 40.6 cd | 30.2 ef | 9.7 g | 61.0 a | 11.1 g | 22.2 f | 27.6 ef | 41.9 cd | <0.0001 |
Corn | 79.5 cde | 83.3 bcd | 74.8 def | 82.9 bcd | 61.6 g | 92.2 a | 89.5 ab | 84.9 abc | 77.0 cdef | 80.2 cde | 3.2 h | 72.2 ef | 69.0 fg | <0.0001 |
Corn syrup | 22.1 c | 22.5 c | 27.8 bc | 21.9 c | 9.2 d | 46.3 a | 32.9 b | 27.0 bc | 26.3 bc | 44.6 a | 48.4 a | 27.3 bc | 19.5 c | <0.0001 |
Gluten | 26.2 ab | 11.6 ef | 28.3 ab | 12.7 ef | 13.5 ef | 14.4 def | 16.0 cde | 10.0 ef | 21.3 bcd | 24.1 b | 7.3 f | 31.7 a | 23.0 bc | <0.0001 |
Insect powder | 4.8 f | 12.2 bcde | 14.1 bcd | 4.4 f | 15.9 bc | 27.8 a | 7.1 ef | 18.1 b | 3.7 f | 10.8 cde | 8.6 def | 7.1 ef | 7.1 ef | <0.0001 |
Lecithin | 21.4 a | 4.8 cd | 7.5 c | 5.9 cd | 5.9 cd | 3.8 cd | 0.8 d | 15.2 b | 15.9 b | 4.3 cd | 1.0 d | 13.0 b | 13.7 b | <0.0001 |
Maltodextrins | 6.5 e | 38.9 bc | 42.2 b | 3.8 e | 1.4 e | 21.1 d | 70.6 a | 2.7 e | 3.0 e | 34.0 c | 65.1 a | 5.6 e | 4.6 e | <0.0001 |
Molasses | 39.4 ab | 3.2 de | 9.5 d | 23.8 c | 36.8 b | 1.9 de | 2.1 de | 8.1 de | 44.6 a | 2.1 de | 1.1 e | 39.5 ab | 45.1 a | <0.0001 |
Pea flour | 38.4 fg | 77.5 bc | 66.7 d | 49.5 e | 30.0 g | 86.7 ab | 80.3 ab | 69.2 cd | 50.2 e | 47.3 ef | 88.3 a | 41.9 ef | 38.1 fg | <0.0001 |
Salt | 57.9 cd | 35.2 f | 33.0 f | 62.2 c | 49.8 de | 57.0 cde | 48.3 e | 78.1 b | 57.0 cde | 62.7 c | 93.7 a | 54.4 cde | 54.4 cde | <0.0001 |
SAPP | 2.7 ab | 2.4 ab | 2.2 ab | 4.0 a | 1.3 ab | 1.6 ab | 0.6 b | 1.3 ab | 2.2 ab | 1.1 b | 1.6 ab | 2.4 ab | 3.2 ab | 0.001 |
Sodium bicarbonate | 19.5 bc | 10.5 def | 6.2 ef | 6.0 ef | 3.8 f | 25.1 b | 13.2 cd | 46.3 a | 11.0 de | 13.3 cd | 3.8 f | 16.5 cd | 13.0 cd | <0.0001 |
Sorghum flour | 36.3 c | 18.3 fg | 60.3 a | 26.7 def | 2.1 h | 35.4 cd | 22.4 fg | 32.1 cde | 45.4 b | 20.8 fg | 63.3 a | 15.1 g | 24.0 efg | <0.0001 |
Soybean | 68.9 cd | 81.1 b | 67.0 cde | 81.7 b | 71.6 c | 61.9 de | 69.7 cd | 41.3 f | 69.8 cd | 70.0 cd | 94.1 a | 58.9 e | 61.6 de | <0.0001 |
Sugar | 50.3 bcd | 41.3 de | 20.8 g | 50.8 bc | 45.1 bcd | 32.5 ef | 32.5 ef | 72.5 a | 41.9 cde | 24.6 fg | 17.1 g | 46.3 bcd | 53.8 b | <0.0001 |
Wheat flour | 65.7 cde | 42.5 f | 68.7 bcde | 86.0 a | 61.3 e | 64.9 de | 75.9 b | 91.9 a | 71.9 bcd | 73.8 bc | 73.2 bcd | 68.3 bcde | 62.9 e | <0.0001 |
Xanthan gum | 8.9 ef | 16.3 bc | 15.4 bcd | 4.8 fg | 1.4 g | 31.1 a | 21.3 b | 4.8 fg | 7.8 ef | 13.0 cde | 9.7 def | 10.3 cdef | 8.3 ef | <0.0001 |
Ingredient | Age | Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | Cluster 3 | Cluster 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia | India | Japan | South Africa | United Kingdom | USA | Russia | Brazil | China | Mexico | Peru | Spain | Thailand | ||
Baking soda | 18–34 yrs | 21.0 ab | 20.4 a | 1.9 | 10.5 | 16.7 | 26.3 b | 4.8 | 7.1 b | 9.5 b | 8.1 c | 2.4 b | 8.6 b | 4.8 |
35–54 yrs | 15.7 b | 13.3 b | 2.4 | 13.8 | 22.9 | 33.2 ab | 11.0 | 20.5 a | 22.4 a | 18.6 b | 6.2 ab | 21.4 a | 3.3 | |
55 yrs + | 26.2 a | 11.0 b | 1.0 | 14.3 | 23.3 | 40.0 a | 7.6 | 26.7 a | 17.1 a | 28.6 a | 10.5 a | 25.2 a | 8.6 | |
p-value | 0.031 | 0.019 | 0.524 | 0.447 | 0.174 | 0.012 | 0.060 | <0.0001 | 0.002 | <0.0001 | 0.003 | <0.0001 | 0.053 | |
BHA | 18–34 yrs | 2.4 | 5.2 | 0.0 | 1.9 | 1.0 | 5.3 | 0.5 | 2.4 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 2.4 |
35–54 yrs | 2.4 | 1.9 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 2.4 | 2.4 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.5 | |
55 yrs + | 1.9 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.4 | 3.8 | 0.0 | 2.4 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 0.5 | |
p-value | 0.930 | 0.072 | 0.368 | 0.133 | 0.492 | 0.302 | 0.368 | 0.228 | 0.364 | 1.000 | 0.778 | 0.172 | 0.099 | |
Black beans | 18–34 yrs | 51.9 b | 53.6 | 50.0 c | 61.9 b | 57.1 b | 50.2 b | 63.3 | 7.1 | 11.9 | 21.0 b | 9.5 | 30.5 | 1.4 |
35–54 yrs | 58.1 b | 55.7 | 61.4 b | 65.7 b | 70.0 a | 66.4 a | 68.6 | 6.2 | 10.5 | 19.5 b | 10.0 | 36.7 | 0.0 | |
55 yrs + | 74.3 a | 54.8 | 76.2 a | 76.7 a | 70.0 a | 71.4 a | 63.8 | 11.0 | 14.3 | 31.9 a | 11.4 | 41.0 | 1.9 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.905 | <0.0001 | 0.003 | 0.006 | <0.0001 | 0.460 | 0.167 | 0.485 | 0.005 | 0.800 | 0.080 | 0.153 | |
Canola oil | 18–34 yrs | 32.9 b | 30.3 b | 27.6 | 52.9 b | 24.3 | 33.5 b | 12.9 | 44.8 | 52.4 | 38.1 | 29.5 | 11.9 | 12.4 b |
35–54 yrs | 39.0 b | 29.5 b | 27.6 | 61.9 ab | 32.9 | 43.6 a | 9.5 | 42.9 | 59.0 | 39.5 | 29.0 | 11.0 | 23.8 a | |
55 yrs + | 58.1 a | 42.9 a | 28.6 | 68.1 a | 25.7 | 48.6 a | 6.7 | 47.6 | 47.1 | 44.3 | 31.9 | 10.5 | 30.5 a | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.005 | 0.969 | 0.006 | 0.110 | 0.006 | 0.100 | 0.615 | 0.050 | 0.401 | 0.792 | 0.894 | <0.0001 | |
Corn | 18–34 yrs | 71.0 c | 85.8 | 51.9 b | 80.0 | 61.4 b | 65.6 | 82.9 | 81.0 | 78.6 a | 91.4 | 84.8 b | 76.2 | 4.8 |
35–54 yrs | 79.5 b | 81.0 | 61.9 a | 72.9 | 80.5 a | 70.6 | 86.7 | 85.2 | 81.0 a | 90.0 | 91.4 a | 80.0 | 1.9 | |
55 yrs + | 88.1 a | 81.9 | 71.0 a | 78.1 | 74.8 a | 71.0 | 85.2 | 83.8 | 64.8 b | 95.2 | 92.4 a | 84.3 | 2.9 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.379 | 0.000 | 0.198 | <0.0001 | 0.408 | 0.545 | 0.487 | 0.000 | 0.117 | 0.021 | 0.115 | 0.236 | |
Corn syrup | 18–34 yrs | 15.7 b | 21.8 | 9.0 | 21.4 b | 18.6 b | 13.4 b | 26.2 | 25.2 | 28.6 ab | 41.4 b | 38.6 | 33.8 b | 50.5 |
35–54 yrs | 16.7 b | 24.8 | 8.6 | 22.9 b | 26.7 b | 21.3 a | 30.0 | 18.6 | 33.8 a | 44.3 ab | 27.6 | 40.0 b | 52.4 | |
55 yrs + | 33.8 a | 19.0 | 10.0 | 34.8 a | 36.7 a | 23.8 a | 24.8 | 23.8 | 21.0 b | 53.3 a | 32.4 | 60.0 a | 42.4 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.367 | 0.876 | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.020 | 0.458 | 0.228 | 0.013 | 0.039 | 0.057 | <0.0001 | 0.094 | |
Gluten | 18–34 yrs | 23.8 b | 13.7 | 10.0 b | 19.0 | 30.5 | 26.8 | 10.0 | 8.1 b | 25.2 b | 16.2 a | 10.5 b | 21.9 | 9.5 |
35–54 yrs | 18.1 b | 14.8 | 18.6 a | 19.0 | 31.9 | 21.8 | 11.9 | 11.0 ab | 38.1 a | 9.0 b | 14.3 b | 21.4 | 3.8 | |
55 yrs + | 36.7 a | 9.5 | 11.9 b | 25.7 | 32.9 | 20.5 | 8.1 | 15.7 a | 21.4 b | 18.1 a | 23.3 a | 29.0 | 8.6 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.232 | 0.026 | 0.156 | 0.870 | 0.270 | 0.429 | 0.048 | 0.000 | 0.021 | 0.001 | 0.124 | 0.055 | |
Insect powder | 18–34 yrs | 5.2 | 6.2 | 17.1 | 5.7 | 9.0 | 7.7 | 20.5 | 12.4 | 14.8 | 25.7 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 8.6 |
35–54 yrs | 6.7 | 2.9 | 13.3 | 2.9 | 7.6 | 7.1 | 18.1 | 12.4 | 11.9 | 28.1 | 6.2 | 13.3 | 7.6 | |
55 yrs + | 2.4 | 4.3 | 17.1 | 2.4 | 4.8 | 6.7 | 15.7 | 11.9 | 15.7 | 29.5 | 8.1 | 11.9 | 9.5 | |
p-value | 0.111 | 0.256 | 0.468 | 0.144 | 0.222 | 0.926 | 0.448 | 0.985 | 0.507 | 0.679 | 0.751 | 0.101 | 0.785 | |
Lecithin | 18–34 yrs | 9.5 b | 6.2 | 3.8 | 4.8 c | 7.1 b | 9.1 b | 12.4 | 3.3 | 7.6 | 3.3 | 1.0 | 4.8 | 1.4 |
35–54 yrs | 13.8 b | 5.2 | 8.1 | 12.4 b | 12.4 b | 11.4 b | 18.1 | 5.2 | 4.8 | 2.9 | 0.5 | 3.8 | 0.0 | |
55 yrs + | 41.0 a | 6.2 | 5.7 | 30.5 a | 19.5 a | 20.5 a | 15.2 | 5.7 | 10.0 | 5.2 | 1.0 | 4.3 | 1.4 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.894 | 0.174 | <0.0001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.266 | 0.480 | 0.124 | 0.403 | 0.818 | 0.891 | 0.220 | |
Maltodextrins | 18–34 yrs | 9.0 a | 3.3 | 1.4 | 2.9 | 2.4 b | 4.3 | 3.3 | 39.0 | 46.2 a | 15.2 b | 66.7 | 27.6 b | 62.9 |
35–54 yrs | 2.9 b | 3.3 | 1.4 | 4.8 | 7.1 a | 3.8 | 3.3 | 39.0 | 51.4 a | 22.9 ab | 71.0 | 34.8 ab | 64.8 | |
55 yrs + | 7.6 a | 4.8 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 7.1 a | 5.7 | 1.4 | 38.6 | 29.0 b | 25.2 a | 74.3 | 39.5 a | 67.6 | |
p-value | 0.027 | 0.674 | 1.000 | 0.135 | 0.049 | 0.623 | 0.381 | 0.993 | <0.0001 | 0.032 | 0.229 | 0.035 | 0.589 | |
Molasses | 18–34 yrs | 24.8 b | 18.5 | 32.4 | 26.7 c | 20.0 c | 34.4 c | 7.6 | 4.3 | 11.4 | 2.9 | 1.9 | 3.8 | 1.0 |
35–54 yrs | 29.0 b | 25.2 | 35.7 | 44.8 b | 42.4 b | 45.5 b | 7.1 | 2.4 | 6.2 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
55 yrs + | 64.3 a | 27.6 | 42.4 | 62.4 a | 56.2 a | 55.2 a | 9.5 | 2.9 | 11.0 | 1.4 | 2.9 | 1.4 | 1.4 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.074 | 0.097 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.000 | 0.639 | 0.512 | 0.130 | 0.466 | 0.578 | 0.088 | 0.866 | |
Pea flour | 18–34 yrs | 31.4 b | 47.4 | 21.0 b | 42.9 b | 35.2 | 32.1 b | 62.9 | 74.3 | 71.0 a | 82.9 b | 70.0 b | 41.4 b | 84.8 |
35–54 yrs | 33.8 b | 47.6 | 35.2 a | 48.1 b | 46.2 | 38.4 ab | 72.4 | 78.1 | 75.7 a | 85.2 b | 81.9 a | 45.7 ab | 88.6 | |
55 yrs + | 50.0 a | 53.8 | 33.8 a | 59.5 a | 44.3 | 43.8 a | 72.4 | 80.0 | 53.3 b | 91.9 a | 89.0 a | 54.8 a | 91.4 | |
p-value | 0.000 | 0.329 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.052 | 0.047 | 0.051 | 0.362 | <0.0001 | 0.018 | <0.0001 | 0.020 | 0.104 | |
Salt | 18–34 yrs | 52.9 b | 66.4 | 52.9 a | 54.3 | 47.1 b | 51.2 | 72.9 | 34.3 | 33.3 | 48.6 b | 40.0 b | 56.2 b | 91.9 |
35–54 yrs | 50.5 b | 61.4 | 41.9 b | 55.2 | 56.2 ab | 56.4 | 77.6 | 33.3 | 37.6 | 56.2 b | 50.0 a | 61.0 b | 95.2 | |
55 yrs + | 70.5 a | 59.0 | 54.8 a | 61.4 | 60.0 a | 55.7 | 83.8 | 38.1 | 28.1 | 66.2 a | 54.8 a | 71.0 a | 93.8 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.289 | 0.018 | 0.276 | 0.025 | 0.510 | 0.025 | 0.558 | 0.116 | 0.001 | 0.009 | 0.006 | 0.373 | |
SAPP | 18–34 yrs | 2.9 | 6.6 a | 1.0 | 4.8 a | 1.0 | 2.9 | 1.4 | 2.4 | 3.8 | 1.9 | 0.5 | 1.4 | 1.9 |
35–54 yrs | 2.4 | 2.9 b | 1.9 | 1.4 b | 3.8 | 3.3 | 1.9 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.9 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.0 | |
55 yrs + | 2.9 | 2.4 b | 1.0 | 0.5 b | 2.4 | 3.3 | 0.5 | 3.8 | 1.4 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.4 | 1.9 | |
p-value | 0.941 | 0.050 | 0.603 | 0.008 | 0.159 | 0.954 | 0.413 | 0.159 | 0.161 | 0.666 | 0.778 | 0.562 | 0.666 | |
Sodium bicarbonate | 18–34 yrs | 15.2 b | 8.1 | 3.8 | 6.7 b | 11.0 b | 9.6 | 40.5 | 7.1 b | 5.2 ab | 21.4 b | 8.6 b | 8.1 b | 8.1 a |
35–54 yrs | 15.2 b | 5.7 | 3.8 | 10.5 ab | 18.6 a | 12.3 | 46.7 | 9.0 b | 3.8 b | 21.0 b | 14.3 ab | 10.5 b | 0.5 b | |
55 yrs + | 28.1 a | 4.3 | 3.8 | 15.7 a | 20.0 a | 17.1 | 51.9 | 15.2 a | 9.5 a | 32.9 a | 16.7 a | 21.4 a | 2.9 b | |
p-value | 0.001 | 0.260 | 1.000 | 0.012 | 0.027 | 0.066 | 0.063 | 0.018 | 0.041 | 0.006 | 0.042 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
Sorghum flour | 18–34 yrs | 22.4 b | 27.0 | 1.4 | 30.5 b | 9.0 b | 16.3 b | 23.3 b | 14.3 | 61.4 a | 24.8 b | 18.6 | 14.8 b | 59.5 |
35–54 yrs | 28.1 b | 28.6 | 3.3 | 49.0 a | 17.6 a | 22.7 b | 35.7 a | 19.0 | 70.5 a | 37.1 a | 22.4 | 17.6 b | 62.9 | |
55 yrs + | 58.6 a | 24.8 | 1.4 | 56.7 a | 18.6 a | 32.9 a | 37.1 a | 21.4 | 49.0 b | 44.3 a | 26.2 | 30.0 a | 67.6 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.676 | 0.285 | <0.0001 | 0.011 | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.156 | <0.0001 | 0.000 | 0.174 | 0.000 | 0.224 | |
Soybean | 18–34 yrs | 65.7 b | 81.5 | 63.8 b | 66.2 | 9.0 b | 52.6 b | 33.3 b | 81.0 | 73.3 a | 59.5 b | 59.0 c | 71.0 | 92.4 |
35–54 yrs | 61.0 b | 79.5 | 73.8 a | 68.1 | 17.6 a | 65.4 a | 45.2 a | 81.4 | 74.8 a | 55.7 b | 70.0 b | 69.5 | 94.3 | |
55 yrs + | 80.0 a | 84.3 | 77.1 a | 75.2 | 18.6 a | 66.7 a | 45.2 a | 81.0 | 52.9 b | 70.5 a | 80.0 a | 69.5 | 95.7 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.447 | 0.007 | 0.104 | 0.003 | 0.005 | 0.017 | 0.990 | <0.0001 | 0.005 | <0.0001 | 0.934 | 0.346 | |
Sugar | 18–34 yrs | 41.4 b | 53.6 | 45.2 | 38.1 | 39.5 | 44.5 b | 69.0 | 22.9 c | 21.0 | 20.0 c | 20.0 b | 16.7 b | 20.0 |
35–54 yrs | 43.8 b | 47.6 | 42.9 | 40.0 | 49.5 | 59.7 a | 70.0 | 44.3 b | 21.0 | 29.5 b | 35.2 a | 27.6 a | 16.7 | |
55 yrs + | 65.7 a | 51.4 | 47.1 | 47.6 | 50.0 | 57.1 a | 78.6 | 56.7 a | 20.5 | 48.1 a | 42.4 a | 29.5 a | 14.8 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.468 | 0.677 | 0.112 | 0.052 | 0.004 | 0.055 | <0.0001 | 0.990 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.004 | 0.354 | |
Wheat flour | 18–34 yrs | 59.5 b | 84.8 | 60.5 | 71.0 | 63.3 | 63.6 | 88.6 b | 38.6 | 72.9 a | 56.7 b | 79.0 | 66.7 b | 76.2 |
35–54 yrs | 53.8 b | 87.6 | 59.0 | 70.5 | 69.5 | 62.1 | 91.0 b | 40.5 | 81.4 a | 66.2 a | 77.1 | 70.5 b | 72.4 | |
55 yrs + | 83.8 a | 85.7 | 64.3 | 74.3 | 71.9 | 62.9 | 96.2 a | 48.6 | 51.9 b | 71.9 a | 71.4 | 84.3 a | 71.0 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.701 | 0.523 | 0.639 | 0.150 | 0.947 | 0.014 | 0.089 | <0.0001 | 0.004 | 0.165 | <0.0001 | 0.457 | |
Xanthan gum | 18–34 yrs | 8.6 ab | 4.3 | 1.0 | 6.7 | 5.7 b | 7.2 | 5.2 | 15.2 | 19.0 | 31.0 | 24.3 | 14.3 | 8.1 |
35–54 yrs | 6.2 b | 4.8 | 1.4 | 6.2 | 12.4 a | 8.5 | 5.7 | 16.7 | 15.7 | 31.4 | 17.1 | 12.9 | 12.9 | |
55 yrs + | 11.9 a | 5.2 | 1.9 | 10.5 | 12.9 a | 9.0 | 3.3 | 17.1 | 11.4 | 31.0 | 22.4 | 11.9 | 8.1 | |
p-value | 0.118 | 0.896 | 0.713 | 0.199 | 0.027 | 0.773 | 0.480 | 0.860 | 0.096 | 0.993 | 0.180 | 0.766 | 0.163 |
Ingredient | Education | Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | Cluster 3 | Cluster 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia | India | Japan | South Africa | United Kingdom | USA | Russia | Brazil | China | Mexico | Peru | Spain | Thailand | ||
Baking soda | ≤HS | 19.5 | 26.7 | 0.9 | 17.7 | 22.9 | 35.0 | 1.8 | 18.9 | 14.2 | 10.7 | 8.2 | 15.9 | 1.1 |
COL+ | 21.9 | 14.3 | 2.2 | 10.0 | 19.7 | 31.5 | 8.4 | 17.5 | 16.9 | 18.8 | 6.2 | 20.7 | 6.3 | |
p-value | 0.473 | 0.064 | 0.233 | 0.005 | 0.349 | 0.354 | 0.080 | 0.654 | 0.445 | 0.283 | 0.534 | 0.123 | 0.047 | |
BHA | ≤HS | 2.0 | 16.7 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 4.1 | 0.0 | 2.3 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 0.0 |
COL+ | 2.4 | 2.3 | 0.2 | 1.3 | 2.1 | 3.6 | 0.2 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 1.3 | |
p-value | 0.751 | <0.0001 | 0.463 | 0.308 | 0.218 | 0.739 | 0.759 | 0.362 | 0.651 | 0.517 | 0.513 | 0.905 | 0.279 | |
Black beans | ≤HS | 59.4 | 36.7 | 63.1 | 64.5 | 67.3 | 61.6 | 62.5 | 8.1 | 10.4 | 32.1 | 8.2 | 32.1 | 1.1 |
COL+ | 62.8 | 55.6 | 62.3 | 70.2 | 64.7 | 63.7 | 65.5 | 8.1 | 12.7 | 23.8 | 10.5 | 39.5 | 1.1 | |
p-value | 0.386 | 0.043 | 0.842 | 0.141 | 0.492 | 0.582 | 0.653 | 0.992 | 0.480 | 0.311 | 0.567 | 0.053 | 1.000 | |
Canola oil | ≤HS | 44.2 | 33.3 | 28.4 | 63.6 | 22.0 | 40.1 | 10.7 | 45.9 | 47.8 | 60.7 | 16.4 | 9.5 | 14.4 |
COL+ | 42.7 | 34.3 | 27.7 | 59.4 | 31.2 | 43.5 | 9.6 | 44.5 | 54.2 | 39.7 | 31.6 | 12.6 | 23.5 | |
p-value | 0.714 | 0.916 | 0.856 | 0.294 | 0.013 | 0.401 | 0.785 | 0.715 | 0.183 | 0.027 | 0.014 | 0.215 | 0.055 | |
Corn | ≤HS | 80.5 | 73.3 | 61.7 | 76.6 | 75.1 | 69.4 | 87.5 | 86.5 | 69.4 | 100.0 | 80.3 | 80.7 | 5.6 |
COL+ | 78.9 | 83.4 | 61.5 | 77.2 | 70.4 | 68.8 | 84.7 | 81.1 | 76.2 | 91.9 | 90.5 | 79.6 | 2.8 | |
p-value | 0.630 | 0.155 | 0.962 | 0.870 | 0.198 | 0.863 | 0.573 | 0.076 | 0.108 | 0.116 | 0.014 | 0.730 | 0.165 | |
Corn syrup | ≤HS | 21.9 | 23.3 | 9.5 | 29.4 | 24.9 | 18.7 | 26.8 | 22.4 | 20.9 | 64.3 | 44.3 | 42.9 | 41.1 |
COL+ | 22.2 | 21.8 | 9.1 | 24.6 | 28.8 | 20.2 | 27.0 | 22.6 | 29.6 | 45.5 | 31.6 | 46.1 | 49.6 | |
p-value | 0.941 | 0.843 | 0.872 | 0.181 | 0.281 | 0.629 | 0.972 | 0.942 | 0.045 | 0.052 | 0.046 | 0.420 | 0.135 | |
Gluten | ≤HS | 22.7 | 10.0 | 11.3 | 22.9 | 31.8 | 22.4 | 5.4 | 10.4 | 25.4 | 14.3 | 8.2 | 18.9 | 3.3 |
COL+ | 28.5 | 12.8 | 14.7 | 20.3 | 31.7 | 23.5 | 10.5 | 12.4 | 29.0 | 14.5 | 16.9 | 28.7 | 8.0 | |
p-value | 0.106 | 0.652 | 0.227 | 0.435 | 0.969 | 0.752 | 0.226 | 0.447 | 0.404 | 0.981 | 0.080 | 0.004 | 0.119 | |
Insect powder | ≤HS | 5.2 | 10.0 | 13.5 | 3.9 | 4.5 | 4.8 | 19.6 | 10.8 | 10.4 | 28.6 | 6.6 | 9.1 | 3.3 |
COL+ | 4.5 | 4.2 | 17.2 | 3.5 | 8.8 | 9.2 | 17.9 | 13.2 | 15.1 | 27.7 | 7.2 | 12.3 | 9.4 | |
p-value | 0.690 | 0.130 | 0.232 | 0.803 | 0.039 | 0.030 | 0.753 | 0.367 | 0.169 | 0.924 | 0.853 | 0.203 | 0.055 | |
Lecithin | ≤HS | 19.1 | 16.7 | 5.4 | 15.2 | 12.2 | 12.9 | 5.4 | 3.5 | 8.2 | 3.6 | 0.0 | 2.4 | 0.0 |
COL+ | 23.0 | 5.3 | 6.1 | 16.3 | 13.5 | 14.3 | 16.2 | 5.7 | 7.3 | 3.8 | 0.9 | 6.0 | 1.1 | |
p-value | 0.252 | 0.010 | 0.713 | 0.707 | 0.647 | 0.620 | 0.031 | 0.206 | 0.711 | 0.948 | 0.464 | 0.025 | 0.316 | |
Maltodextrins | ≤HS | 5.2 | 3.3 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 4.9 | 4.1 | 5.4 | 37.8 | 26.1 | 25.0 | 70.5 | 31.1 | 60.0 |
COL+ | 7.4 | 3.8 | 1.5 | 4.3 | 6.0 | 5.1 | 2.4 | 39.6 | 46.6 | 20.9 | 70.7 | 36.5 | 65.9 | |
p-value | 0.272 | 0.892 | 0.905 | 0.016 | 0.566 | 0.560 | 0.199 | 0.652 | <0.0001 | 0.607 | 0.980 | 0.150 | 0.275 | |
Molasses | ≤HS | 38.2 | 16.7 | 31.1 | 41.6 | 39.6 | 46.6 | 5.4 | 1.5 | 7.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.4 | 0.0 |
COL+ | 40.1 | 24.1 | 40.0 | 46.4 | 39.5 | 43.8 | 8.4 | 4.3 | 10.1 | 2.0 | 2.3 | 2.7 | 1.3 | |
p-value | 0.641 | 0.350 | 0.028 | 0.243 | 0.978 | 0.474 | 0.432 | 0.051 | 0.360 | 0.452 | 0.234 | 0.237 | 0.279 | |
Pea flour | ≤HS | 35.5 | 40.0 | 28.8 | 47.6 | 42.4 | 37.1 | 67.9 | 77.2 | 55.2 | 82.1 | 73.8 | 44.9 | 81.1 |
COL+ | 40.4 | 50.1 | 30.6 | 51.6 | 41.6 | 39.0 | 69.3 | 77.6 | 69.8 | 86.9 | 81.0 | 49.4 | 89.4 | |
p-value | 0.215 | 0.282 | 0.637 | 0.333 | 0.826 | 0.622 | 0.819 | 0.904 | 0.002 | 0.472 | 0.176 | 0.263 | 0.023 | |
Salt | ≤HS | 54.6 | 76.7 | 48.6 | 60.2 | 56.3 | 55.4 | 80.4 | 33.2 | 26.9 | 71.4 | 47.5 | 59.8 | 86.7 |
COL+ | 60.2 | 61.6 | 50.5 | 55.1 | 53.2 | 53.6 | 77.9 | 36.7 | 34.7 | 56.3 | 48.3 | 65.3 | 94.8 | |
p-value | 0.166 | 0.096 | 0.659 | 0.219 | 0.450 | 0.639 | 0.669 | 0.373 | 0.088 | 0.115 | 0.907 | 0.157 | 0.003 | |
SAPP | ≤HS | 2.4 | 13.3 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 3.7 | 1.8 | 2.7 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 2.2 |
COL+ | 2.9 | 3.5 | 1.2 | 2.5 | 2.3 | 2.7 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 2.6 | 1.7 | 0.7 | 1.8 | 1.5 | |
p-value | 0.699 | 0.007 | 0.894 | 0.526 | 0.930 | 0.449 | 0.720 | 0.659 | 0.192 | 0.494 | 0.513 | 0.082 | 0.604 | |
Sodium bicarbonate | ≤HS | 16.7 | 20.0 | 3.6 | 9.5 | 15.5 | 12.6 | 39.3 | 6.9 | 10.4 | 35.7 | 11.5 | 12.2 | 4.4 |
COL+ | 21.4 | 5.3 | 3.9 | 11.8 | 17.1 | 13.4 | 47.0 | 12.9 | 5.0 | 24.6 | 13.4 | 14.4 | 3.7 | |
p-value | 0.151 | 0.001 | 0.843 | 0.383 | 0.591 | 0.764 | 0.267 | 0.016 | 0.021 | 0.185 | 0.680 | 0.416 | 0.735 | |
Sorghum flour | ≤HS | 35.1 | 20.0 | 0.5 | 40.7 | 13.9 | 19.4 | 33.9 | 17.0 | 53.0 | 39.3 | 16.4 | 15.5 | 58.9 |
COL+ | 37.2 | 27.1 | 2.9 | 48.1 | 15.8 | 28.0 | 31.9 | 19.1 | 62.3 | 35.2 | 23.0 | 25.4 | 64.1 | |
p-value | 0.584 | 0.391 | 0.036 | 0.071 | 0.502 | 0.012 | 0.755 | 0.493 | 0.051 | 0.660 | 0.238 | 0.002 | 0.345 | |
Soybean | ≤HS | 65.3 | 83.3 | 66.7 | 64.9 | 59.6 | 61.9 | 53.6 | 82.6 | 56.0 | 46.4 | 50.8 | 66.6 | 88.9 |
COL+ | 71.2 | 81.7 | 74.3 | 72.7 | 58.4 | 61.3 | 40.1 | 80.1 | 70.0 | 62.6 | 71.7 | 73.1 | 95.0 | |
p-value | 0.118 | 0.822 | 0.044 | 0.041 | 0.775 | 0.879 | 0.050 | 0.418 | 0.002 | 0.085 | 0.001 | 0.076 | 0.023 | |
Sugar | ≤HS | 51.8 | 53.3 | 41.4 | 47.2 | 49.0 | 53.7 | 71.4 | 35.1 | 19.4 | 25.0 | 16.4 | 21.6 | 12.2 |
COL+ | 49.3 | 50.7 | 47.1 | 38.8 | 44.7 | 53.9 | 72.6 | 45.6 | 21.2 | 32.9 | 34.3 | 27.2 | 18.0 | |
p-value | 0.547 | 0.783 | 0.176 | 0.041 | 0.291 | 0.975 | 0.846 | 0.009 | 0.655 | 0.384 | 0.005 | 0.102 | 0.181 | |
Wheat flour | ≤HS | 68.9 | 86.7 | 57.7 | 75.3 | 69.0 | 65.3 | 85.7 | 42.5 | 56.7 | 71.4 | 75.4 | 76.4 | 70.0 |
COL+ | 63.6 | 86.0 | 63.2 | 69.9 | 67.8 | 60.7 | 92.5 | 42.6 | 72.0 | 64.6 | 75.9 | 71.6 | 73.7 | |
p-value | 0.168 | 0.922 | 0.170 | 0.147 | 0.755 | 0.235 | 0.076 | 0.977 | 0.001 | 0.461 | 0.930 | 0.172 | 0.463 | |
Xanthan gum | ≤HS | 6.0 | 6.7 | 0.5 | 5.2 | 7.8 | 8.8 | 5.4 | 15.8 | 9.7 | 35.7 | 34.4 | 10.8 | 7.8 |
COL+ | 10.8 | 4.7 | 2.0 | 9.3 | 11.9 | 7.7 | 4.7 | 16.7 | 16.9 | 30.9 | 19.9 | 15.0 | 10.0 | |
p-value | 0.037 | 0.615 | 0.128 | 0.066 | 0.092 | 0.616 | 0.827 | 0.769 | 0.040 | 0.591 | 0.008 | 0.122 | 0.510 |
Ingredient | Sex | Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | Cluster 3 | Cluster 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia | India | Japan | South Africa | United Kingdom | USA | Russia | Brazil | China | Mexico | Peru | Spain | Thailand | ||
Baking soda | Male | 20.0 | 14.3 | 1.3 | 13.0 | 22.6 | 31.8 | 4.8 | 16.5 | 17.1 | 16.2 | 5.4 | 13.3 | 4.4 |
Female | 21.9 | 15.5 | 2.2 | 12.7 | 19.3 | 34.5 | 10.8 | 19.7 | 15.6 | 20.6 | 7.3 | 23.5 | 6.7 | |
p-value | 0.557 | 0.667 | 0.362 | 0.906 | 0.308 | 0.481 | 0.005 | 0.301 | 0.591 | 0.151 | 0.328 | 0.001 | 0.224 | |
BHA | Male | 2.9 | 3.2 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 5.1 | 0.0 | 1.3 | 2.2 | 1.6 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 1.3 |
Female | 1.6 | 2.8 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 0.3 | 2.2 | 0.0 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
p-value | 0.280 | 0.811 | 0.319 | 1.000 | 0.531 | 0.093 | 0.319 | 0.362 | 0.008 | 0.738 | 0.045 | 0.317 | 0.705 | |
Black beans | Male | 58.7 | 57.1 | 60.3 | 67.9 | 63.4 | 62.4 | 64.4 | 8.3 | 14.0 | 22.9 | 6.7 | 33.3 | 1.6 |
Female | 64.1 | 52.2 | 64.8 | 68.3 | 68.0 | 63.0 | 66.0 | 7.9 | 10.5 | 25.4 | 14.0 | 38.7 | 0.6 | |
p-value | 0.165 | 0.214 | 0.250 | 0.932 | 0.218 | 0.886 | 0.676 | 0.884 | 0.181 | 0.457 | 0.003 | 0.159 | 0.255 | |
Canola oil | Male | 48.9 | 33.0 | 27.0 | 61.0 | 27.4 | 43.0 | 9.8 | 47.3 | 51.4 | 38.7 | 27.3 | 10.8 | 18.7 |
Female | 37.8 | 35.4 | 28.9 | 61.0 | 27.8 | 40.8 | 9.5 | 42.9 | 54.3 | 42.5 | 33.0 | 11.4 | 25.7 | |
p-value | 0.005 | 0.521 | 0.595 | 1.000 | 0.898 | 0.581 | 0.893 | 0.263 | 0.473 | 0.331 | 0.119 | 0.800 | 0.035 | |
Corn | Male | 76.2 | 84.4 | 61.0 | 80.3 | 73.2 | 73.9 | 81.9 | 87.6 | 73.3 | 92.1 | 91.7 | 80.6 | 2.9 |
Female | 82.9 | 81.3 | 62.2 | 73.7 | 71.2 | 64.2 | 87.9 | 79.0 | 76.2 | 92.4 | 87.3 | 79.7 | 3.5 | |
p-value | 0.038 | 0.299 | 0.744 | 0.047 | 0.567 | 0.009 | 0.035 | 0.004 | 0.410 | 0.882 | 0.069 | 0.765 | 0.650 | |
Corn syrup | Male | 23.5 | 23.5 | 9.8 | 27.9 | 29.6 | 24.2 | 26.0 | 26.7 | 25.4 | 49.5 | 35.6 | 45.4 | 49.8 |
Female | 20.6 | 20.3 | 8.6 | 24.8 | 25.0 | 14.9 | 27.9 | 18.4 | 30.2 | 43.2 | 30.2 | 43.8 | 47.0 | |
p-value | 0.388 | 0.326 | 0.582 | 0.366 | 0.194 | 0.003 | 0.591 | 0.013 | 0.183 | 0.110 | 0.150 | 0.689 | 0.474 | |
Gluten | Male | 25.4 | 11.7 | 13.3 | 19.7 | 31.8 | 25.5 | 7.0 | 12.7 | 27.3 | 11.7 | 16.5 | 20.0 | 6.0 |
Female | 27.0 | 13.6 | 13.7 | 22.9 | 31.6 | 20.6 | 13.0 | 10.5 | 29.2 | 17.1 | 15.6 | 28.3 | 8.6 | |
p-value | 0.651 | 0.483 | 0.908 | 0.331 | 0.957 | 0.144 | 0.012 | 0.384 | 0.596 | 0.054 | 0.745 | 0.016 | 0.221 | |
Insect powder | Male | 6.3 | 4.1 | 18.4 | 5.1 | 8.6 | 8.6 | 16.2 | 14.9 | 10.5 | 27.0 | 8.3 | 9.5 | 9.2 |
Female | 3.2 | 4.7 | 13.3 | 2.2 | 5.7 | 5.7 | 20.0 | 9.5 | 17.8 | 28.6 | 6.0 | 12.1 | 7.9 | |
p-value | 0.062 | 0.706 | 0.081 | 0.056 | 0.158 | 0.158 | 0.215 | 0.039 | 0.009 | 0.657 | 0.279 | 0.305 | 0.570 | |
Lecithin | Male | 19.4 | 6.3 | 5.4 | 14.6 | 11.8 | 16.9 | 9.8 | 2.5 | 7.3 | 2.2 | 0.6 | 4.8 | 1.6 |
Female | 23.5 | 5.4 | 6.3 | 17.1 | 14.2 | 10.4 | 20.6 | 7.0 | 7.6 | 5.4 | 1.0 | 3.8 | 0.3 | |
p-value | 0.207 | 0.605 | 0.612 | 0.384 | 0.360 | 0.019 | 0.000 | 0.009 | 0.880 | 0.038 | 0.655 | 0.556 | 0.101 | |
Maltodextrins | Male | 8.3 | 3.5 | 1.0 | 3.8 | 5.4 | 6.7 | 3.2 | 40.0 | 42.5 | 19.4 | 71.7 | 30.8 | 66.3 |
Female | 4.8 | 4.1 | 1.9 | 2.2 | 5.7 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 37.8 | 41.9 | 22.9 | 69.5 | 37.1 | 63.8 | |
p-value | 0.076 | 0.684 | 0.315 | 0.245 | 0.878 | 0.013 | 0.462 | 0.568 | 0.872 | 0.283 | 0.541 | 0.093 | 0.504 | |
Molasses | Male | 38.1 | 25.1 | 32.4 | 45.1 | 37.9 | 46.2 | 8.6 | 2.9 | 8.3 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 3.5 | 0.6 |
Female | 40.6 | 22.5 | 41.3 | 44.1 | 41.1 | 44.0 | 7.6 | 3.5 | 10.8 | 1.3 | 2.9 | 0.6 | 1.6 | |
p-value | 0.515 | 0.442 | 0.021 | 0.810 | 0.406 | 0.581 | 0.662 | 0.650 | 0.278 | 0.244 | 0.162 | 0.012 | 0.255 | |
Pea flour | Male | 39.0 | 49.8 | 31.1 | 48.3 | 40.4 | 40.8 | 67.0 | 81.9 | 66.3 | 88.3 | 80.0 | 48.9 | 87.9 |
Female | 37.8 | 49.4 | 28.9 | 52.1 | 43.4 | 35.4 | 71.4 | 73.0 | 67.0 | 85.1 | 80.6 | 45.7 | 88.6 | |
p-value | 0.744 | 0.905 | 0.543 | 0.339 | 0.460 | 0.169 | 0.227 | 0.008 | 0.866 | 0.242 | 0.842 | 0.452 | 0.805 | |
Salt | Male | 61.0 | 66.7 | 51.1 | 62.2 | 57.3 | 56.1 | 79.7 | 42.2 | 32.1 | 59.7 | 47.9 | 64.8 | 92.1 |
Female | 54.9 | 57.9 | 48.6 | 51.7 | 51.6 | 52.8 | 76.5 | 28.3 | 34.0 | 54.3 | 48.6 | 60.6 | 95.2 | |
p-value | 0.126 | 0.023 | 0.524 | 0.008 | 0.148 | 0.420 | 0.336 | 0.000 | 0.612 | 0.172 | 0.874 | 0.285 | 0.103 | |
SAPP | Male | 3.2 | 5.1 | 1.0 | 3.2 | 2.2 | 4.1 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 0.6 |
Female | 2.2 | 2.8 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 1.0 | 3.2 | 1.9 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 2.5 | |
p-value | 0.462 | 0.151 | 0.478 | 0.105 | 0.804 | 0.169 | 0.478 | 0.192 | 0.590 | 0.056 | 0.317 | 0.705 | 0.056 | |
Sodium bicarbonate | Male | 18.4 | 5.1 | 3.5 | 12.1 | 16.2 | 15.6 | 43.8 | 9.8 | 6.7 | 19.7 | 9.8 | 9.8 | 4.4 |
Female | 20.6 | 7.0 | 4.1 | 9.8 | 16.8 | 10.4 | 48.9 | 11.1 | 5.7 | 30.5 | 16.5 | 16.8 | 3.2 | |
p-value | 0.482 | 0.321 | 0.678 | 0.372 | 0.858 | 0.054 | 0.202 | 0.603 | 0.621 | 0.002 | 0.013 | 0.010 | 0.406 | |
Sorghum flour | Male | 39.0 | 28.3 | 1.9 | 53.7 | 18.5 | 27.7 | 30.5 | 22.5 | 61.0 | 40.0 | 25.7 | 18.1 | 65.4 |
Female | 33.7 | 25.3 | 2.2 | 37.1 | 11.7 | 20.3 | 33.7 | 14.0 | 59.7 | 30.8 | 19.0 | 23.5 | 61.3 | |
p-value | 0.160 | 0.405 | 0.780 | <0.0001 | 0.018 | 0.029 | 0.394 | 0.005 | 0.745 | 0.016 | 0.045 | 0.095 | 0.283 | |
Soybean | Male | 71.4 | 84.8 | 71.7 | 72.4 | 56.1 | 60.8 | 40.3 | 83.2 | 68.6 | 57.5 | 68.3 | 65.1 | 93.3 |
Female | 66.3 | 78.8 | 71.4 | 67.3 | 61.7 | 62.3 | 42.2 | 79.0 | 65.4 | 66.3 | 71.1 | 74.9 | 94.9 | |
p-value | 0.169 | 0.053 | 0.930 | 0.165 | 0.149 | 0.697 | 0.628 | 0.186 | 0.397 | 0.022 | 0.436 | 0.007 | 0.398 | |
Sugar | Male | 53.7 | 57.8 | 48.6 | 48.3 | 51.9 | 57.3 | 75.9 | 40.3 | 19.7 | 31.7 | 34.6 | 20.3 | 16.8 |
Female | 47.0 | 44.0 | 41.6 | 35.6 | 40.8 | 50.3 | 69.2 | 42.2 | 21.9 | 33.3 | 30.5 | 28.9 | 17.5 | |
p-value | 0.095 | 0.001 | 0.078 | 0.001 | 0.005 | 0.078 | 0.061 | 0.628 | 0.492 | 0.671 | 0.269 | 0.013 | 0.833 | |
Wheat flour | Male | 66.7 | 88.9 | 65.4 | 78.1 | 71.7 | 66.6 | 93.0 | 52.4 | 67.9 | 72.1 | 79.0 | 73.0 | 76.8 |
Female | 64.8 | 83.2 | 57.1 | 65.7 | 64.9 | 59.2 | 90.8 | 32.7 | 69.5 | 57.8 | 72.7 | 74.6 | 69.5 | |
p-value | 0.615 | 0.040 | 0.034 | 0.001 | 0.068 | 0.055 | 0.307 | <0.0001 | 0.668 | 0.000 | 0.063 | 0.651 | 0.039 | |
Xanthan gum | Male | 9.5 | 5.1 | 1.0 | 9.5 | 9.9 | 10.2 | 2.5 | 17.5 | 14.0 | 30.8 | 19.0 | 10.8 | 12.1 |
Female | 8.3 | 4.4 | 1.9 | 6.0 | 10.8 | 6.3 | 7.0 | 15.2 | 16.8 | 31.4 | 23.5 | 15.2 | 7.3 | |
p-value | 0.576 | 0.702 | 0.315 | 0.102 | 0.715 | 0.079 | 0.009 | 0.451 | 0.321 | 0.864 | 0.173 | 0.098 | 0.044 |
Ingredient | No. of Adults | Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | Cluster 3 | Cluster 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia | India | Japan | South Africa | United Kingdom | USA | Russia | Brazil | China | Mexico | Peru | Spain | Thailand | ||
Baking soda | 1–2 | 21.8 | 16.8 | 1.5 | 13.4 | 22.9 | 31.6 | 7.7 | 18.6 | 14.0 | 23.1 | 3.8 | 17.5 | 5.8 |
3+ | 18.4 | 17.0 | 2.0 | 12.1 | 14.8 | 37.9 | 7.9 | 17.5 | 14.2 | 18.13 | 6.5 | 18.5 | 5.5 | |
p-value | 0.379 | 0.933 | 0.613 | 0.618 | 0.031 | 0.141 | 0.954 | 0.733 | 0.951 | 0.439 | 0.594 | 0.838 | 0.884 | |
BHA | 1–2 | 2.5 | 4.6 | 0.0 | 0.8 | 1.9 | 3.8 | 0.0 | 1.8 | 0.7 | 2.6 | 3.8 | 0.0 | 1.0 |
3+ | 1.3 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 3.7 | 0.4 | 1.7 | 2.4 | 1.4 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 1.1 | |
p-value | 0.385 | 0.008 | 0.290 | 0.694 | 0.281 | 0.950 | 0.187 | 0.869 | 0.205 | 0.539 | 0.036 | 0.506 | 0.921 | |
Black beans | 1–2 | 62.8 | 55.5 | 61.7 | 71.2 | 67.6 | 64.0 | 63.1 | 8.8 | 14.7 | 30.8 | 3.8 | 36.5 | 1.6 |
3+ | 57.2 | 11.5 | 63.5 | 63.8 | 60.0 | 59.0 | 69.0 | 7.3 | 54.4 | 23.7 | 0.5 | 36.0 | 0.9 | |
p-value | 0.223 | <0.0001 | 0.635 | 0.048 | 0.085 | 0.262 | 0.135 | 0.475 | <0.0001 | 0.318 | 0.269 | 0.934 | 0.469 | |
Canola oil | 1–2 | 45.2 | 34.7 | 26.0 | 59.5 | 26.9 | 42.2 | 9.7 | 43.6 | 51.0 | 43.6 | 23.1 | 6.3 | 19.9 |
3+ | 37.5 | 53.4 | 30.1 | 63.0 | 29.7 | 41.0 | 9.6 | 46.7 | 34.1 | 40.4 | 30.5 | 11.6 | 23.2 | |
p-value | 0.096 | <0.0001 | 0.262 | 0.366 | 0.510 | 0.786 | 0.962 | 0.436 | 0.000 | 0.699 | 0.422 | 0.205 | 0.355 | |
Corn | 1–2 | 79.9 | 80.9 | 59.6 | 76.2 | 74.1 | 69.9 | 85.5 | 84.5 | 66.4 | 92.3 | 84.6 | 73.0 | 2.1 |
3+ | 78.3 | 77.2 | 63.9 | 78.1 | 66.5 | 66.5 | 83.8 | 82.1 | 83.6 | 92.2 | 89.7 | 81.0 | 3.6 | |
p-value | 0.666 | 0.310 | 0.272 | 0.567 | 0.065 | 0.411 | 0.568 | 0.433 | <0.0001 | 0.984 | 0.405 | 0.134 | 0.308 | |
Corn syrup | 1–2 | 23.6 | 17.9 | 7.8 | 28.2 | 28.4 | 20.3 | 25.7 | 26.8 | 23.8 | 53.8 | 30.8 | 47.6 | 50.3 |
3+ | 17.1 | 29.0 | 10.8 | 23.8 | 23.9 | 17.4 | 29.3 | 17.9 | 23.4 | 45.9 | 32.9 | 44.3 | 47.6 | |
p-value | 0.091 | 0.005 | 0.190 | 0.212 | 0.270 | 0.429 | 0.332 | 0.007 | 0.919 | 0.333 | 0.818 | 0.612 | 0.541 | |
Gluten | 1–2 | 26.8 | 14.5 | 12.9 | 24.4 | 32.0 | 24.1 | 10.0 | 12.2 | 25.9 | 23.1 | 11.5 | 27.0 | 4.7 |
3+ | 24.3 | 29.0 | 14.2 | 17.0 | 31.0 | 19.9 | 10.0 | 10.9 | 12.0 | 13.9 | 16.2 | 23.8 | 8.4 | |
p-value | 0.552 | 0.000 | 0.630 | 0.025 | 0.811 | 0.273 | 0.978 | 0.620 | <0.0001 | 0.114 | 0.525 | 0.577 | 0.100 | |
Insect powder | 1–2 | 4.4 | 5.2 | 14.4 | 3.3 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 17.7 | 11.0 | 11.2 | 23.1 | 7.7 | 14.3 | 6.8 |
3+ | 5.9 | 15.0 | 17.6 | 4.2 | 1.9 | 4.3 | 18.8 | 13.6 | 4.1 | 28.1 | 7.1 | 10.4 | 9.3 | |
p-value | 0.442 | 0.001 | 0.274 | 0.569 | 0.004 | 0.111 | 0.737 | 0.320 | 0.002 | 0.499 | 0.913 | 0.347 | 0.297 | |
Lecithin | 1–2 | 22.6 | 6.9 | 7.2 | 18.6 | 14.7 | 14.3 | 15.2 | 4.3 | 5.6 | 2.6 | 0.0 | 3.2 | 2.1 |
3+ | 17.8 | 8.0 | 4.4 | 12.1 | 7.7 | 11.8 | 15.3 | 5.3 | 5.5 | 3.9 | 0.8 | 4.4 | 0.5 | |
p-value | 0.207 | 0.651 | 0.137 | 0.026 | 0.025 | 0.429 | 0.981 | 0.545 | 0.951 | 0.676 | 0.644 | 0.647 | 0.052 | |
Maltodextrins | 1–2 | 6.1 | 3.5 | 1.8 | 3.8 | 6.5 | 4.9 | 2.0 | 39.3 | 30.8 | 23.1 | 57.7 | 39.7 | 62.8 |
3+ | 7.9 | 45.6 | 1.0 | 1.9 | 2.6 | 3.7 | 3.9 | 38.4 | 3.9 | 21.0 | 71.2 | 33.3 | 66.1 | |
p-value | 0.427 | <0.0001 | 0.410 | 0.159 | 0.063 | 0.539 | 0.150 | 0.814 | <0.0001 | 0.757 | 0.139 | 0.313 | 0.435 | |
Molasses | 1–2 | 41.8 | 24.3 | 35.6 | 46.0 | 43.6 | 46.3 | 9.0 | 2.7 | 8.4 | 2.6 | 3.8 | 1.6 | 0.5 |
3+ | 31.6 | 9.9 | 38.2 | 42.6 | 27.1 | 41.6 | 6.6 | 3.6 | 23.6 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 1.4 | |
p-value | 0.024 | <0.0001 | 0.509 | 0.399 | 0.000 | 0.306 | 0.283 | 0.521 | <0.0001 | 0.757 | 0.516 | 0.781 | 0.354 | |
Pea flour | 1–2 | 38.9 | 49.7 | 31.4 | 52.3 | 43.8 | 40.5 | 67.6 | 78.7 | 55.2 | 84.6 | 69.2 | 49.2 | 86.9 |
3+ | 36.8 | 70.0 | 28.4 | 47.2 | 36.1 | 31.1 | 72.1 | 76.2 | 49.6 | 86.8 | 80.8 | 47.1 | 88.8 | |
p-value | 0.648 | <0.0001 | 0.404 | 0.202 | 0.094 | 0.033 | 0.243 | 0.454 | 0.236 | 0.698 | 0.147 | 0.750 | 0.490 | |
Salt | 1–2 | 60.5 | 65.9 | 50.9 | 57.0 | 57.9 | 54.8 | 77.6 | 36.9 | 25.9 | 48.7 | 38.5 | 58.7 | 90.1 |
3+ | 50.0 | 35.1 | 48.6 | 57.0 | 43.9 | 53.4 | 79.0 | 33.4 | 60.9 | 57.5 | 48.7 | 63.1 | 95.2 | |
p-value | 0.023 | <0.0001 | 0.573 | 0.999 | 0.002 | 0.762 | 0.666 | 0.366 | <0.0001 | 0.282 | 0.308 | 0.493 | 0.015 | |
SAPP | 1–2 | 3.1 | 3.5 | 2.1 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 0.5 | 2.7 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.6 | 2.6 |
3+ | 1.3 | 2.7 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.3 | 2.5 | 2.6 | 2.0 | 4.1 | 1.7 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.1 | |
p-value | 0.228 | 0.590 | 0.050 | 0.302 | 0.306 | 0.564 | 0.022 | 0.534 | 0.045 | 0.414 | 0.680 | 0.706 | 0.173 | |
Sodium bicarbonate | 1–2 | 20.7 | 5.2 | 3.0 | 13.4 | 17.9 | 14.5 | 45.4 | 10.7 | 4.2 | 38.5 | 23.1 | 19.0 | 4.7 |
3+ | 15.8 | 6.8 | 4.7 | 7.5 | 12.3 | 8.7 | 48.0 | 10.3 | 6.3 | 24.2 | 12.7 | 12.7 | 3.4 | |
p-value | 0.183 | 0.467 | 0.257 | 0.020 | 0.101 | 0.059 | 0.522 | 0.868 | 0.342 | 0.047 | 0.128 | 0.160 | 0.436 | |
Sorghum flour | 1–2 | 39.3 | 28.9 | 2.4 | 45.8 | 16.0 | 25.4 | 32.9 | 17.4 | 49.7 | 33.3 | 11.5 | 17.5 | 57.1 |
3+ | 27.0 | 63.4 | 1.7 | 44.9 | 12.3 | 19.9 | 30.6 | 19.2 | 26.0 | 35.5 | 22.8 | 21.2 | 66.1 | |
p-value | 0.006 | <0.0001 | 0.535 | 0.833 | 0.259 | 0.159 | 0.544 | 0.554 | <0.0001 | 0.781 | 0.176 | 0.493 | 0.032 | |
Soybean | 1–2 | 70.5 | 78.6 | 70.4 | 69.3 | 62.3 | 62.5 | 42.4 | 81.1 | 53.1 | 69.2 | 76.9 | 65.1 | 92.7 |
3+ | 63.8 | 71.0 | 73.0 | 70.6 | 48.4 | 59.0 | 39.3 | 81.1 | 83.0 | 61.4 | 69.4 | 70.5 | 94.8 | |
p-value | 0.121 | 0.054 | 0.468 | 0.736 | 0.002 | 0.436 | 0.449 | 0.993 | <0.0001 | 0.331 | 0.413 | 0.370 | 0.306 | |
Sugar | 1–2 | 52.3 | 50.9 | 44.6 | 41.4 | 49.3 | 54.6 | 71.6 | 43.0 | 16.8 | 35.9 | 26.9 | 23.8 | 18.8 |
3+ | 44.1 | 22.0 | 45.6 | 42.6 | 37.4 | 51.6 | 74.2 | 39.4 | 50.9 | 32.3 | 32.8 | 24.7 | 16.4 | |
p-value | 0.078 | <0.0001 | 0.802 | 0.750 | 0.010 | 0.506 | 0.472 | 0.362 | <0.0001 | 0.645 | 0.533 | 0.878 | 0.454 | |
Wheat flour | 1–2 | 67.8 | 90.2 | 59.9 | 70.1 | 68.6 | 63.5 | 91.0 | 43.9 | 58.7 | 74.4 | 69.2 | 77.8 | 70.7 |
3+ | 59.2 | 71.7 | 62.8 | 74.3 | 67.1 | 60.9 | 93.4 | 41.1 | 84.5 | 64.3 | 76.2 | 73.4 | 74.3 | |
p-value | 0.053 | <0.0001 | 0.447 | 0.247 | 0.722 | 0.546 | 0.283 | 0.471 | <0.0001 | 0.203 | 0.420 | 0.451 | 0.352 | |
Xanthan gum | 1–2 | 9.2 | 3.5 | 1.8 | 8.2 | 11.6 | 9.2 | 4.5 | 18.0 | 11.2 | 35.9 | 19.2 | 7.9 | 7.3 |
3+ | 7.9 | 16.6 | 1.0 | 7.2 | 6.5 | 5.6 | 5.2 | 14.6 | 5.2 | 30.8 | 21.4 | 13.6 | 10.7 | |
p-value | 0.622 | <0.0001 | 0.410 | 0.628 | 0.069 | 0.155 | 0.671 | 0.247 | 0.013 | 0.506 | 0.796 | 0.207 | 0.188 |
Ingredient | No. of Children | Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | Cluster 3 | Cluster 4 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Australia | India | Japan | South Africa | United Kingdom | USA | Russia | Brazil | China | Mexico | Peru | Spain | Thailand | ||
Baking soda | None | 21.7 | 16.5 | 1.5 | 13.9 | 20.7 | 34.9 | 6.1 | 20.3 | 15.3 | 18.9 | 7.7 | 18.2 | 6.6 |
1+ | 19.4 | 13.8 | 2.5 | 11.7 | 21.4 | 29.6 | 9.5 | 15.3 | 17.1 | 18.1 | 5.5 | 18.7 | 4.6 | |
p-value | 0.506 | 0.361 | 0.377 | 0.416 | 0.836 | 0.186 | 0.111 | 0.103 | 0.540 | 0.803 | 0.277 | 0.875 | 0.254 | |
BHA | None | 2.1 | 2.7 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 3.3 | 0.0 | 1.4 | 0.7 | 1.3 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
1+ | 2.4 | 3.2 | 0.0 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 4.9 | 0.3 | 2.1 | 1.4 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 1.1 | 1.8 | |
p-value | 0.859 | 0.748 | 0.567 | 0.067 | 0.810 | 0.340 | 0.302 | 0.504 | 0.453 | 0.783 | 0.144 | 0.175 | 0.075 | |
Black beans | None | 68.3 | 56.9 | 64.1 | 73.2 | 70.3 | 66.3 | 63.8 | 8.3 | 12.3 | 25.2 | 10.9 | 36.1 | 0.7 |
1+ | 47.9 | 53.2 | 58.0 | 62.2 | 57.6 | 55.3 | 66.8 | 7.8 | 12.2 | 23.5 | 9.9 | 35.9 | 1.5 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.364 | 0.172 | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.008 | 0.434 | 0.827 | 0.952 | 0.621 | 0.705 | 0.946 | 0.307 | |
Canola oil | None | 47.5 | 33.7 | 28.3 | 59.9 | 27.2 | 42.2 | 10.1 | 44.1 | 49.6 | 37.4 | 27.0 | 10.3 | 22.9 |
1+ | 35.1 | 34.6 | 26.8 | 62.2 | 28.4 | 41.3 | 9.2 | 46.3 | 55.2 | 42.6 | 32.2 | 12.2 | 21.6 | |
p-value | 0.003 | 0.826 | 0.703 | 0.553 | 0.746 | 0.820 | 0.699 | 0.592 | 0.163 | 0.197 | 0.167 | 0.458 | 0.686 | |
Corn | None | 84.0 | 81.6 | 63.2 | 78.5 | 74.8 | 70.5 | 83.7 | 80.2 | 70.9 | 93.3 | 87.5 | 79.3 | 2.0 |
1+ | 70.6 | 83.8 | 56.7 | 75.3 | 67.7 | 66.0 | 86.2 | 87.2 | 77.6 | 91.6 | 90.8 | 81.3 | 4.3 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.470 | 0.146 | 0.341 | 0.055 | 0.252 | 0.393 | 0.020 | 0.055 | 0.442 | 0.182 | 0.546 | 0.106 | |
Corn syrup | None | 26.0 | 19.6 | 10.4 | 28.9 | 30.2 | 20.0 | 25.2 | 22.3 | 28.7 | 47.5 | 33.5 | 47.8 | 45.5 |
1+ | 14.2 | 23.4 | 5.7 | 23.4 | 22.3 | 18.4 | 28.9 | 22.8 | 27.1 | 45.7 | 32.5 | 40.1 | 51.1 | |
p-value | 0.001 | 0.258 | 0.083 | 0.116 | 0.032 | 0.635 | 0.284 | 0.899 | 0.646 | 0.658 | 0.793 | 0.054 | 0.164 | |
Gluten | None | 31.3 | 10.6 | 13.5 | 25.7 | 32.4 | 24.1 | 9.5 | 14.6 | 26.1 | 16.8 | 19.4 | 27.2 | 6.6 |
1+ | 16.1 | 14.1 | 13.4 | 16.2 | 30.6 | 20.9 | 10.5 | 7.8 | 29.8 | 13.0 | 13.9 | 19.8 | 7.9 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.194 | 0.961 | 0.004 | 0.632 | 0.374 | 0.671 | 0.008 | 0.306 | 0.189 | 0.067 | 0.034 | 0.545 | |
Insect powder | None | 3.3 | 3.1 | 16.1 | 2.4 | 7.0 | 7.3 | 19.6 | 12.9 | 11.9 | 31.5 | 7.7 | 10.3 | 7.0 |
1+ | 7.6 | 5.3 | 15.3 | 5.2 | 7.4 | 6.8 | 16.4 | 11.4 | 15.7 | 25.5 | 6.8 | 11.5 | 10.0 | |
p-value | 0.018 | 0.192 | 0.817 | 0.063 | 0.837 | 0.814 | 0.300 | 0.567 | 0.176 | 0.103 | 0.685 | 0.655 | 0.172 | |
Lecithin | None | 27.7 | 5.1 | 6.6 | 20.6 | 15.5 | 14.9 | 15.0 | 4.3 | 7.5 | 3.8 | 0.8 | 4.1 | 0.7 |
1+ | 9.0 | 6.4 | 3.8 | 10.3 | 8.7 | 11.2 | 15.5 | 5.3 | 7.5 | 3.8 | 0.8 | 4.6 | 1.2 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.501 | 0.208 | 0.000 | 0.016 | 0.206 | 0.881 | 0.543 | 0.999 | 0.978 | 0.978 | 0.759 | 0.478 | |
Maltodextrins | None | 6.9 | 2.7 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 6.5 | 4.7 | 2.5 | 38.4 | 37.7 | 20.2 | 70.2 | 35.3 | 65.4 |
1+ | 5.7 | 4.5 | 0.6 | 3.4 | 3.9 | 4.4 | 3.0 | 39.5 | 45.6 | 21.7 | 70.9 | 32.1 | 64.7 | |
p-value | 0.554 | 0.253 | 0.336 | 0.568 | 0.179 | 0.846 | 0.696 | 0.777 | 0.048 | 0.652 | 0.834 | 0.394 | 0.853 | |
Molasses | None | 47.7 | 28.2 | 36.6 | 53.4 | 45.9 | 47.2 | 8.9 | 3.2 | 11.2 | 1.7 | 2.0 | 1.6 | 0.0 |
1+ | 22.7 | 20.7 | 37.6 | 34.4 | 28.4 | 40.8 | 7.2 | 3.2 | 8.3 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 2.7 | 2.1 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.030 | 0.821 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.131 | 0.446 | 0.972 | 0.220 | 0.749 | 0.947 | 0.366 | 0.011 | |
Pea flour | None | 41.8 | 54.9 | 30.4 | 53.7 | 43.6 | 40.8 | 70.6 | 78.2 | 65.3 | 85.3 | 80.6 | 48.4 | 87.7 |
1+ | 31.8 | 46.0 | 28.7 | 46.0 | 38.9 | 32.5 | 67.8 | 76.5 | 67.7 | 87.5 | 80.1 | 45.8 | 88.8 | |
p-value | 0.015 | 0.029 | 0.673 | 0.056 | 0.243 | 0.045 | 0.449 | 0.610 | 0.531 | 0.430 | 0.868 | 0.525 | 0.684 | |
Salt | None | 62.3 | 66.3 | 50.3 | 60.2 | 57.6 | 54.5 | 79.1 | 37.8 | 32.8 | 58.4 | 52.4 | 63.9 | 92.7 |
1+ | 49.3 | 59.6 | 48.4 | 53.3 | 48.9 | 54.4 | 77.0 | 32.0 | 33.1 | 56.1 | 45.5 | 61.1 | 94.5 | |
p-value | 0.002 | 0.089 | 0.679 | 0.081 | 0.035 | 0.979 | 0.512 | 0.131 | 0.934 | 0.576 | 0.092 | 0.476 | 0.345 | |
SAPP | None | 2.4 | 3.1 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 3.3 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 1.0 |
1+ | 3.3 | 4.5 | 1.9 | 3.1 | 3.1 | 2.9 | 2.6 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 2.1 | |
p-value | 0.497 | 0.383 | 0.409 | 0.170 | 0.401 | 0.795 | 0.003 | 0.492 | 0.107 | 0.885 | 0.144 | 0.402 | 0.257 | |
Sodium bicarbonate | None | 22.7 | 5.5 | 4.0 | 12.4 | 18.7 | 14.4 | 45.7 | 11.5 | 4.1 | 25.6 | 16.1 | 14.9 | 3.3 |
1+ | 13.3 | 6.4 | 3.2 | 9.3 | 12.7 | 10.2 | 47.0 | 9.3 | 7.7 | 24.7 | 11.3 | 11.1 | 4.3 | |
p-value | 0.005 | 0.644 | 0.638 | 0.213 | 0.050 | 0.143 | 0.738 | 0.369 | 0.062 | 0.804 | 0.078 | 0.159 | 0.542 | |
Sorghum flour | None | 43.7 | 29.4 | 1.7 | 48.1 | 16.7 | 25.9 | 34.0 | 19.2 | 55.6 | 33.2 | 20.6 | 22.3 | 62.8 |
1+ | 21.8 | 25.0 | 3.2 | 42.3 | 12.2 | 19.9 | 29.9 | 17.1 | 63.8 | 36.7 | 23.6 | 18.7 | 63.8 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.220 | 0.255 | 0.144 | 0.131 | 0.096 | 0.269 | 0.495 | 0.037 | 0.368 | 0.379 | 0.276 | 0.787 | |
Soybean | None | 74.5 | 83.1 | 71.7 | 71.4 | 61.3 | 63.2 | 44.5 | 81.1 | 60.8 | 64.7 | 72.2 | 69.3 | 95.0 |
1+ | 57.8 | 80.9 | 71.3 | 68.0 | 54.6 | 58.3 | 37.8 | 81.1 | 71.5 | 60.2 | 68.1 | 71.0 | 93.3 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.466 | 0.936 | 0.362 | 0.097 | 0.231 | 0.091 | 0.988 | 0.005 | 0.260 | 0.273 | 0.647 | 0.364 | |
Sugar | None | 58.0 | 54.5 | 46.3 | 43.7 | 48.9 | 57.8 | 72.4 | 44.7 | 17.9 | 33.6 | 34.3 | 25.8 | 14.3 |
1+ | 35.1 | 48.4 | 41.4 | 39.9 | 41.9 | 45.6 | 72.7 | 37.0 | 22.9 | 31.9 | 31.4 | 22.9 | 19.8 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.133 | 0.286 | 0.336 | 0.092 | 0.004 | 0.932 | 0.052 | 0.125 | 0.654 | 0.455 | 0.403 | 0.069 | |
Wheat flour | None | 72.6 | 88.6 | 61.5 | 71.4 | 70.6 | 63.7 | 92.6 | 41.8 | 67.2 | 60.9 | 72.6 | 75.8 | 68.8 |
1+ | 52.1 | 84.3 | 60.5 | 72.5 | 64.2 | 61.2 | 91.1 | 43.4 | 69.9 | 67.3 | 78.0 | 71.0 | 77.2 | |
p-value | <0.0001 | 0.125 | 0.822 | 0.755 | 0.098 | 0.541 | 0.485 | 0.690 | 0.466 | 0.102 | 0.120 | 0.175 | 0.017 | |
Xanthan gum | None | 9.8 | 5.1 | 1.5 | 10.6 | 12.7 | 8.0 | 3.7 | 14.6 | 13.8 | 29.8 | 19.4 | 12.5 | 8.0 |
1+ | 7.1 | 4.5 | 1.3 | 4.5 | 6.1 | 8.7 | 5.9 | 18.5 | 16.6 | 31.9 | 22.5 | 13.7 | 11.2 | |
p-value | 0.266 | 0.739 | 0.852 | 0.004 | 0.009 | 0.759 | 0.188 | 0.190 | 0.342 | 0.589 | 0.344 | 0.649 | 0.166 |
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Choi, J.; Chambers, E., IV; Lee, J. Consumer Sensory Perceptions of Natural Ingredients: A Multi-Country Comparison. Foods 2025, 14, 1775. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14101775
Choi J, Chambers E IV, Lee J. Consumer Sensory Perceptions of Natural Ingredients: A Multi-Country Comparison. Foods. 2025; 14(10):1775. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14101775
Chicago/Turabian StyleChoi, Jisoo, Edgar Chambers, IV, and Jeehyun Lee. 2025. "Consumer Sensory Perceptions of Natural Ingredients: A Multi-Country Comparison" Foods 14, no. 10: 1775. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14101775
APA StyleChoi, J., Chambers, E., IV, & Lee, J. (2025). Consumer Sensory Perceptions of Natural Ingredients: A Multi-Country Comparison. Foods, 14(10), 1775. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14101775