Protein Quality and Protein Digestibility of Vegetable Creams Reformulated with Microalgae Inclusion
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Material and Preparation Procedure of Vegetable Creams
2.2. In Vitro Simulated Digestion
2.3. Measurements and Analysis
2.3.1. Optical Microscopy
2.3.2. Total Amino Acids
2.3.3. Protein Content
2.3.4. Degree of Protein Hydrolysis (DH%)
2.3.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Microalgae Protein Characterization
3.1.1. Appearance of Microalgal Cells
3.1.2. Protein Content and Amino Acid Composition
3.1.3. Protein in Vitro Digestibility
3.2. Effect of Microalgae Incorporation on Protein Composition of Vegetable Creams
3.3. Effect of Microalgae Incorporation on Protein Digestibility of Vegetable Creams
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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CV | NO | SP | TC | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gly | *** | 1.85 ± 0.08 a | 2.65 ± 0.01 c | 3.29 ± 0.06 d | 2.06 ± 0.03 b |
Ala | *** | 2.36 ± 0.07 | 2.95 ± 0.12 | 4.12 ± 0.11 | 2.50 ± 0.06 |
Ser | *** | 1.18 ± 0.03 a | 1.60 ± 0.01 b | 2.57 ± 0.06 c | 1.17 ± 0.05 a |
Pro | *** | 2.09 ± 0.08 b | 2.21 ± 0.02 c | 2.43 ± 0.01 d | 2.02 ± 0.02 a |
Val | *** | 1.50 ± 0.09 a | 2.50 ± 0.01 b | 3.36 ± 0.15 c | 1.75 ± 0.07 a |
Thr | *** | 1.15 ± 0.03 a | 2.23 ± 0.01 c | 2.93 ± 0.04 d | 1.68 ± 0.02 b |
Ile | *** | 0.89 ± 0.07 a | 1.88 ± 0.03 c | 3.08 ± 0.14 d | 1.20 ± 0.06 b |
Leu | *** | 1.92 ± 0.07 a | 3.20 ± 0.04 c | 3.94 ± 0.11 d | 2.30 ± 0.10 b |
Asp | *** | 3.71 ± 0.14 a | 4.93 ± 0.02 b | 6.58 ± 0.10 c | 5.16 ± 0.10 b |
Lys | *** | 3.24 ± 0.11 c | 2.67 ± 0.01 b | 2.99 ± 0.22 b c | 1.86 ± 0.01 a |
Glu | *** | 3.51 ± 0.14 a | 4.78 ± 0.03 b | 8.46 ± 0.02 c | 4.80 ± 0.08 b |
His | *** | 0.58 ± 0.02 a | 0.77 ± 0.01 b | 0.88 ± 0.04 c | 0.55 ± 0.01 a |
Phe | *** | 0.94 ± 0.02 a | 2.27 ± 0.23 c | 2.61 ± 0.12 c | 1.61 ± 0.06 b |
Arg | *** | 2.71 ± 0.14 a | 2.60 ± 0.01 a | 3.98 ± 0.01 c | 3.75 ± 0.01 b |
Tyr | *** | 0.74 ± 0.03 a | 1.32 ± 0.03 c | 2.28 ± 0.02 d | 0.95 ± 0.01 b |
Met | *** | 0.65 ± 0.05 a | 0.98 ± 0.01 c | 1.39 ± 0.01 d | 0.81 ± 0.06 b |
Cys | ns | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.26 ± 0.05 | 0.46 ± 0.15 | 0.48 ± 0.03 |
EAA | *** | 10.85 ± 0.21 a | 16.50 ± 0.28 b | 21.20 ± 0.80 c | 11.75 ± 0.21 a |
NAA | *** | 18.50 ± 0.70 a | 23.30 ± 0.01 b | 34.20 ± 0.10 c | 22.90 ± 0.01 b |
AA | *** | 29.35 ± 0.90 a | 39.80 ± 0.20 c | 55.35 ± 0.60 d | 34.65 ± 0.20 b |
Significance | STD | CV1.5 | NO1.5 | SP1.5 | TC1.5 | CV3 | NO3 | SP3 | TC3 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gly | * | 0.61 ± 0.01 | 0.68 ± 0.03 | 0.62 ± 0.18 | 0.78 ± 0.01 | 0.74 ± 0.00 | 0.72 ± 0.01 | 0.80 ± 0.00 | 0.85 ± 0.01 | 0.81 ± 0.01 |
Ala | *** | 0.72 ± 0.03 | 0.82 ± 0.13 | 0.86 ± 0.04 | 0.96 ± 0.04 | 0.83 ± 0.02 | 0.94 ± 0.02 | 0.96 ± 0.01 | 1.14 ± 0.03 | 0.96 ± 0.03 |
Ser | ns | 0.93 ± 0.03 | 0.93 ± 0.03 | 1.03 ± 0.19 | 1.01 ± 0.01 | 0.94 ± 0.02 | 0.92 ± 0.03 | 0.97 ± 0.01 | 1.09 ± 0.01 | 1.01 ± 0.02 |
Pro | ** | 0.73 ± 0.01 | 0.83 ± 0.06 | 0.82 ± 0.01 | 0.84 ± 0.02 | 0.81 ± 0.03 | 0.86 ± 0.02 | 0.87 ± 0.00 | 0.88 ± 0.02 | 0.86 ± 0.02 |
Val | ** | 0.64 ± 0.03 | 0.69 ± 0.03 | 0.71 ± 0.05 | 0.79 ± 0.05 | 0.74 ± 0.01 | 0.74 ± 0.02 | 0.75 ± 0.02 | 0.86 ± 0.03 | 0.74 ± 0.01 |
Thr | *** | 0.69 ± 0.02 | 0.74 ± 0.04 | 0.77 ± 0.07 | 0.82 ± 0.01 | 0.76 ± 0.02 | 0.76 ± 0.02 | 0.82 ± 0.01 | 0.94 ± 0.00 | 0.83 ± 0.00 |
Ile | *** | 0.53 ± 0.03 | 0.54 ± 0.01 | 0.57 ± 0.03 | 0.66 ± 0.05 | 0.58 ± 0.01 | 0.57 ± 0.03 | 0.61 ± 0.01 | 0.74 ± 0.03 | 0.59 ± 0.01 |
Leu | *** | 1.11 ± 0.04 | 1.14 ± 0.05 | 1.22 ± 0.03 | 1.33 ± 0.06 | 1.21 ± 0.02 | 1.22 ± 0.04 | 1.33 ± 0.01 | 1.43 ± 0.00 | 1.29 ± 0.03 |
Asp | * | 1.53 ± 0.08 | 1.60 ± 0.28 | 1.83 ± 0.08 | 1.92 ± 0.04 | 1.69 ± 0.09 | 1.81 ± 0.08 | 1.92 ± 0.09 | 2.02 ± 0.03 | 1.98 ± 0.05 |
Lys | ns | 0.59 ± 0.23 | 0.54 ± 0.18 | 0.49 ± 0.01 | 0.46 ± 0.05 | 0.42 ± 0.04 | 0.55 ± 0.01 | 0.54 ± 0.00 | 0.51 ± 0.02 | 0.52 ± 0.04 |
Glu | * | 2.22 ± 0.06 | 2.42 ± 0.42 | 2.52 ± 0.05 | 2.75 ± 0.12 | 2.38 ± 0.10 | 2.52 ± 0.07 | 2.60 ± 0.09 | 2.97 ± 0.05 | 2.77 ± 0.02 |
His | ns | 0.41 ± 0.12 | 0.38 ± 0.03 | 0.39 ± 0.06 | 0.37 ± 0.05 | 0.36 ± 0.01 | 0.24 ± 0.00 | 0.32 ± 0.01 | 0.35 ± 0.00 | 0.31 ± 0.03 |
Phe | ns | 0.76 ± 0.01 | 0.77 ± 0.04 | 0.78 ± 0.05 | 0.86 ± 0.06 | 0.82 ± 0.00 | 0.79 ± 0.04 | 0.82 ± 0.04 | 0.85 ± 0.03 | 0.83 ± 0.03 |
Arg | ns | 1.15 ± 0.55 | 0.90 ± 0.13 | 0.81 ± 0.12 | 0.89 ± 0.01 | 0.86 ± 0.02 | 0.87 ± 0.03 | 0.78 ± 0.01 | 0.93 ± 0.03 | 1.00 ± 0.09 |
Tyr | * | 0.44 ± 0.01 | 0.46 ± 0.03 | 0.48 ± 0.05 | 0.57 ± 0.04 | 0.48 ± 0.00 | 0.46 ± 0.03 | 0.50 ± 0.02 | 0.58 ± 0.01 | 0.49 ± 0.03 |
Met | ns | 0.27 ± 0.01 | 0.30 ± 0.01 | 0.31 ± 0.00 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 0.29 ± 0.01 | 0.29 ± 0.01 | 0.33 ± 0.05 | 0.33 ± 0.04 | 0.37 ± 0.07 |
Cys | ** | 0.16 ± 0.01 | 0.23 ± 0.02 | 0.18 ± 0.02 | 0.18 ± 0.01 | 0.23 ± 0.00 | 0.19 ± 0.02 | 0.18 ± 0.01 | 0.22 ± 0.00 | 0.24 ± 0.01 |
Trp | ns | 0.07 ± 0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 0.09 ± 0.02 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 0.08 ± 0.02 | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 0.09 ± 0.01 |
EAA | ** | 5.07 ± 0.29 | 5.19 ± 0.28 | 5.33 ± 0.29 | 5.71 ± 0.10 | 5.27 ± 0.03 | 5.25 ± 0.17 | 5.62 ± 0.04 | 6.10 ± 0.08 | 5.58 ± 0.17 |
NAA | * | 8.50 ± 0.42 | 8.86 ± 1.04 | 9.15 ± 0.71 | 9.91 ± 0.12 | 8.96 ± 0.23 | 9.29 ± 0.31 | 9.58 ± 0.20 | 10.68 ± 0.06 | 10.12 ± 0.01 |
AA | * | 13.57 ± 0.72 | 14.06 ± 1.31 | 14.48 ± 1.00 | 15.62 ± 0.22 | 14.23 ± 0.26 | 14.54 ± 0.48 | 15.21 ± 0.23 | 16.78 ± 0.02 | 15.70 ± 0.15 |
Microalgae Species (S) | Level of Addition (LA) | The Interaction (S × LA) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SS% | Significance | SS% | Significance | SS% | Significance | |
Gly | 42 | * | 45 | ns | 13 | ns |
Ala | 48 | *** | 50 | ** | 2 | ns |
Ser | 3 | ns | 69 | ns | 28 | ns |
Pro | 80 | ** | 15 | ns | 5 | ns |
Val | 19 | * | 75 | ** | 6 | ns |
Thr | 31 | ** | 60 | *** | 8 | ns |
Ile | 10 | * | 84 | *** | 6 | ns |
Leu | 30 | *** | 70 | *** | 1 | ns |
Asp | 39 | * | 51 | ns | 9 | ns |
Lys | 37 | ns | 48 | ns | 16 | ns |
Glu | 27 | * | 62 | * | 11 | ns |
His | 59 | * | 16 | ns | 26 | ns |
Phe | 7 | ns | 81 | ns | 12 | ns |
Arg | 6 | ns | 64 | ns | 30 | ns |
Tyr | 2 | ns | 98 | ** | 0 | ns |
Met | 17 | ns | 38 | ns | 45 | ns |
Cys | 1 | ns | 68 | ** | 31 | ns |
Trp | 19 | ns | 78 | ns | 3 | ns |
EAA | 21 | * | 75 | ** | 5 | ns |
NAA | 35 | * | 58 | * | 6 | ns |
AA | 31 | * | 64 | * | 5 | ns |
TPC | 22 | *** | 75 | *** | 2 | *** |
Age Group | His | Ile | Leu | Lys | SAA | AAA | Thr | Trp | Val |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scoring Pattern mg/g Protein Requirement | |||||||||
Infant (birth to 6 months) | 21 | 55 | 96 | 69 | 33 | 94 | 44 | 17 | 55 |
Child (6 months to 3 year) | 20 | 32 | 66 | 57 | 27 | 52 | 31 | 8.5 | 43 |
Older child, adolescent, adult | 16 | 30 | 61 | 48 | 23 | 41 | 25 | 6.6 | 40 |
Scoring pattern (birth to 6 months) | |||||||||
Formulation | His | Ile | Leu | Lys | SAA | AAA | Thr | Trp | Val |
STD | 1.44 | 0.71 | 0.85 | 0.63 | 0.95 | 0.94 | 1.16 | 0.32 | 0.86 |
CV1.5 | 1.43 | 0.77 | 0.93 | 0.61 | 1.24 | 1.02 | 1.31 | 0.34 | 0.98 |
NO1.5 | 1.47 | 0.83 | 1.02 | 0.57 | 1.18 | 1.07 | 1.40 | 0.43 | 1.04 |
SP1.5 | 1.38 | 0.94 | 1.09 | 0.53 | 1.24 | 1.19 | 1.47 | 0.40 | 1.13 |
TC1.5 | 1.36 | 0.84 | 0.99 | 0.48 | 1.24 | 1.09 | 1.35 | 0.37 | 1.05 |
CV3 | 0.97 | 0.87 | 1.07 | 0.67 | 1.23 | 1.12 | 1.45 | 0.39 | 1.13 |
NO3 | 1.32 | 0.96 | 1.20 | 0.68 | 1.36 | 1.21 | 1.62 | 0.49 | 1.18 |
SP3 | 1.43 | 1.15 | 1.27 | 0.63 | 1.41 | 1.29 | 1.81 | 0.45 | 1.33 |
TC3 | 1.23 | 0.89 | 1.13 | 0.63 | 1.53 | 1.17 | 1.58 | 0.44 | 1.13 |
Scoring pattern (child 6 months to 3 year) | |||||||||
Formulation | His | Ile | Leu | Lys | SAA | AAA | Thr | Trp | Val |
STD | 1.51 | 1.22 | 1.24 | 0.76 | 1.17 | 1.70 | 1.64 | 0.64 | 1.10 |
CV1.5 | 1.50 | 1.32 | 1.35 | 0.74 | 1.52 | 1.85 | 1.86 | 0.68 | 1.26 |
NO1.5 | 1.54 | 1.43 | 1.48 | 0.69 | 1.44 | 1.93 | 1.99 | 0.86 | 1.33 |
SP1.5 | 1.45 | 1.62 | 1.59 | 0.64 | 1.52 | 2.16 | 2.08 | 0.79 | 1.44 |
TC1.5 | 1.43 | 1.44 | 1.44 | 0.58 | 1.51 | 1.96 | 1.92 | 0.74 | 1.35 |
CV3 | 1.02 | 1.49 | 1.55 | 0.81 | 1.51 | 2.02 | 2.06 | 0.78 | 1.45 |
NO3 | 1.38 | 1.65 | 1.74 | 0.82 | 1.66 | 2.19 | 2.29 | 0.97 | 1.51 |
SP3 | 1.51 | 1.97 | 1.84 | 0.76 | 1.72 | 2.34 | 2.57 | 0.90 | 1.70 |
TC3 | 1.29 | 1.53 | 1.64 | 0.77 | 1.87 | 2.12 | 2.25 | 0.88 | 1.45 |
Scoring pattern (Older child, adolescent, adult) | |||||||||
Formulation | His | Ile | Leu | Lys | SAA | AAA | Thr | Trp | Val |
STD | 1.89 | 1.30 | 1.34 | 0.90 | 1.37 | 2.16 | 2.04 | 0.83 | 1.19 |
CV1.5 | 1.88 | 1.41 | 1.46 | 0.88 | 1.78 | 2.34 | 2.30 | 0.87 | 1.35 |
NO1.5 | 1.93 | 1.53 | 1.60 | 0.82 | 1.69 | 2.45 | 2.47 | 1.10 | 1.43 |
SP1.5 | 1.81 | 1.73 | 1.72 | 0.76 | 1.78 | 2.73 | 2.58 | 1.02 | 1.55 |
TC1.5 | 1.78 | 1.53 | 1.56 | 0.68 | 1.78 | 2.49 | 2.38 | 0.95 | 1.45 |
CV3 | 1.28 | 1.59 | 1.68 | 0.97 | 1.77 | 2.56 | 2.56 | 1.01 | 1.56 |
NO3 | 1.73 | 1.76 | 1.89 | 0.97 | 1.95 | 2.78 | 2.84 | 1.25 | 1.63 |
SP3 | 1.88 | 2.11 | 2.00 | 0.90 | 2.02 | 2.96 | 3.19 | 1.16 | 1.83 |
TC3 | 1.61 | 1.64 | 1.77 | 0.91 | 2.19 | 2.69 | 2.79 | 1.14 | 1.56 |
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Prandi, B.; Boukid, F.; Van De Walle, S.; Cutroneo, S.; Comaposada, J.; Van Royen, G.; Sforza, S.; Tedeschi, T.; Castellari, M. Protein Quality and Protein Digestibility of Vegetable Creams Reformulated with Microalgae Inclusion. Foods 2023, 12, 2395. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12122395
Prandi B, Boukid F, Van De Walle S, Cutroneo S, Comaposada J, Van Royen G, Sforza S, Tedeschi T, Castellari M. Protein Quality and Protein Digestibility of Vegetable Creams Reformulated with Microalgae Inclusion. Foods. 2023; 12(12):2395. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12122395
Chicago/Turabian StylePrandi, Barbara, Fatma Boukid, Simon Van De Walle, Sara Cutroneo, Josep Comaposada, Geert Van Royen, Stefano Sforza, Tullia Tedeschi, and Massimo Castellari. 2023. "Protein Quality and Protein Digestibility of Vegetable Creams Reformulated with Microalgae Inclusion" Foods 12, no. 12: 2395. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12122395