Cow’s Milk in Human Nutrition and the Emergence of Plant-Based Milk Alternatives
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Nutritional Comparison of Cow’s Milk and PBMA
2.1. What Is A PBMA, and How Is It Made?
2.2. Carbohydrates
2.2.1. Total Energy Content
2.2.2. Total Carbohydrate Content
2.2.3. Fiber Content
2.2.4. Total Sugar Content and Sugar Profile
2.2.5. Glycemic Index (GI) and Glycemic Load (GL)
2.3. Protein
2.3.1. Total Protein Content
2.3.2. Protein Quality Evaluation
2.4. Lipids
2.4.1. Total Cholesterol Content
2.4.2. Total Lipid Content
2.4.3. Fatty Acid Profile
2.5. Minerals
2.5.1. Macromineral Contents
2.5.2. Trace Element Contents
2.6. Vitamins
2.6.1. Fat-Soluble Vitamin Contents
Cow’s Milk | Oat PBMA | Almond PBMA | Soya PBMA | Rice PBMA | Coconut PBMA | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fat−soluble vitamins | A 1 | 34.17–203.3 (155.3) | 62.50–208.0 (141.6) | 107.1–208.3 (195.4) | 45.23–208.8 (154.2) | 93.77–208.8 (185.3) | 83.33–208.3 (190.2) |
D 1 | 4.00–51.67 (22.8) | 42.00 (−) | 3.23–62.50 (38.49) | 2.60–75.0 (42.4) | 2.90–75.0 (40.79) | 4.07–62.50 (42.95) | |
E 2 | 0.01–0.07 (0.04) | − | 1.60 (−) | 1.67 (−) | 1.25 (−) | − | |
K 3 | 0.20–0.30 (0.26) | − | − | − | − | − | |
Water−soluble vitamins | C 2 | 0.20–1.54 (0.87) | 0.70 (−) | − | − | − | − |
B1 2 | 0.04–0.05 (0.04) | − | − | 0.03 (−) | − | − | |
B2 2 | 0.17–0.19 (0.18) | 0.13–0.21 (0.18) | 0.01–0.18 (0.08) | 0.10–0.21 (0.17) | 0.13–0.21 (0.17) | 0.17 (−) | |
B3 2 | 0.08–0.09 (0.09) | − | − | 0.12 (−) | − | − | |
B6 2 | 0.04 (–) | − | − | 0.04 (−) | − | − | |
B9 3 | 5.00–5.15 (5.03) | − | 8.00 (−) | 10.13–14.00 (12.1) | 10.13 (−) | 8.00–10.0 (9.5) | |
B12 3 | 0.37–0.54 (0.47) | 0.25 (−) | 0.42–1.25 (0.97) | 0.28–1.25 (0.76) | 0.42–0.62 (0.55) | 0.31–1.25 (1.03) | |
References | [8,24,26,27] | [8,26,31] | [8,24,26,32] | [8,24,26] | [8,26,28,96] | [8,24,26,35] |
2.6.2. Water-Soluble Vitamin Contents
3. Health Issues Related to Cow’s Milk Consumption
3.1. Adverse Reaction to Cow’s Milk Consumption
3.1.1. Cow’s Milk Protein Allergy
3.1.2. Lactose Intolerance
3.1.3. A1 β-Casein and A2 β-Casein
3.2. Chronic Diseases
3.2.1. Obesity
3.2.2. Cardiovascular Diseases
3.2.3. Diabetes
3.2.4. Bone Health
3.2.5. Cancer
3.3. Neurological Diseases
4. Health Issues Related to PBMA Consumption
4.1. Isoflavones
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cow’s Milk | Oat PBMA | Almond PBMA | Soya PBMA | Rice PBMA | Coconut PBMA | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total energy content | 34.0–65.8 (54.0) | 29.0–103.0 (52.7) | 15.2–40.2 (24.3) | 32.0–58.0 (41.2) | 47.0–60.0 (54.2) | 19.0–178.0 (54.0) | |
Carbohydrates | Total content | 4.58–5.33 (4.88) | 3.33–18.8 (8.99) | 0.20–4.40 (1.95) | 0.20–7.08 (2.94) | 9.17–12.2 (10.82) | 0.42–5.00 (2.28) |
Fiber | – | 0.40–4.70 (1.27) | 0.27–1.60 (0.52) | 0.40–0.80 (0.52) | 0.10 (−) | 0.10–0.42 (0.34) | |
Sugar | 3.38–5.15 (4.81) | 0.42–10.9 (5.61) | 0.05–4.58 (1.82) | 0.10–6.25 (2.23) | 2.50–7.02 (5.13) | 0.00–3.75 (1.62) | |
Sugar profile | Maltose | − | 2.75–3.34 (3.05) | − | 0.66 (−) | 2.41–4.88 (3.37) | 1.05 (−) |
Sucrose | − | − | 0.16–3.42 (1.80) | 0.35–2.88 (1.13) | − | − | |
Glucose | 2.06 (−) | 0.01 (−) | 0.06–0.87 (0.38) | 0.01–0.52 (0.33) | 0.11–4.12 (2.43) | 0.81 (−) | |
Fructose | − | − | 0.06–0.61 (0.34) | 0.06–1.27 (0.78) | 0.07–0.10 (0.09) | − | |
Galactose | 2.55 (−) | − | − | − | − | − | |
Protein | 3.15–3.70 (3.35) | 0.4–3.24 (1.10) | 0.41–2.40 (0.75) | 2.08–3.70 (3.10) | 0.07–0.42 (0.30) | 0.08–1.60 (0.64) | |
Lipids | Total content | 0.08–4.17 (2.81) | 0.28–2.65 (1.21) | 1.04–10.4 (2.42) | 1.25–2.11 (1.76) | 0.83–1.20 (0.96) | 0.84–18.5 (4.55) |
SFA 1 | 0.06–2.35 (1.45) | 0.00–1.47 (0.35) | 0.10–0.20 (0.15) | 0.17–0.42 (0.27) | 0.07–0.21 (0.16) | 1.67–12.6 (3.15) | |
MUFA 2 | 0.02–1.09 (0.66) | 0.83 (−) | 0.70–0.83 (0.79) | 0.35 (−) | 0.48–0.62 (0.57) | − | |
PUFA 3 | 0.00–0.20 (0.12) | 0.21–0.42 (0.32) | 0.21–0.28 (0.23) | 1.00 (−) | 0.21–0.35 (0.26) | − | |
References | [6,8,10,24,25,26,27] | [6,8,10,17,25,26,28,29,30,31] | [6,8,10,17,24,26,28,29,30,32] | [6,8,10,17,24,25,26,28,29,30,33] | [6,8,10,17,24,25,26,28,30,34] | [6,8,10,24,26,28,29,35] |
Food Group | Food Description | GI | GL |
---|---|---|---|
Plant-based milk alternatives 1 | Almond | 57 | 3 |
Coconut | 97 | 5 | |
Oat | 60 | 8 | |
Rice | 99 | 18 | |
Soya | 53 | 2 | |
Cow’s milk 1 | Fresh milk, pasteurized, and homogenized | 47 | 4 |
Other beverages 2 | Coca-Cola | 58 | 15 |
Apple juice unsweetened | 40 | 12 | |
Orange juice | 50 | 13 | |
Breakfast cereals 2 | Chocapic (Nestlé, France) | 84 | 21 |
Cornflakes | 81 | 21 | |
Muesli, NS (Canada) | 66 | 17 | |
Alpen Muesli (Wheetabix, France) | 55 | 10 | |
Sugar and sugar alcohols 2 | Fructose | 19 | 2 |
Glucose | 99 | 10 | |
Honey | 55 | 10 | |
Lactose | 46 | 5 | |
Maltose | 105 | 11 | |
Sucrose | 68 | 7 |
Protein Source | True Ileal Amino Acid Digestibility (%) |
---|---|
Whey protein isolate 1 | 100 |
Whey protein concentrate 1 | 98 |
Milk protein concentrate 1 | 94 |
Pea protein concentrate 1 | 98 |
Soya protein isolate 1 | 96 |
Whole wheat 2 | 93 |
Oats 2 | 89 |
Buckwheat 2 | 88 |
Brown rice 2 | 85 |
Polished rice 2 | 77 |
Protein Quality Assessment Scores | DIAAS | PDCAAS (Untruncated) | |
---|---|---|---|
Protein Source | Whey isolate protein | 125 (His) | 122 (His) |
Whey protein concentrate | 133 (His) | 134 (His) | |
Milk protein concentrate | 141 (SAA) | 142 (SAA) | |
Skimmed milk powder | 123 (SAA) | 132 (SAA) | |
Pea protein concentrate | 73 (SAA) | 84 (SAA) | |
Soya protein isolate | 98 (SAA) | 102 (SAA) | |
Soya flour | 105 (SAA) | 109 (SAA) | |
Wheat | 54 (Lys) | 51 (Lys) |
Cow’s Milk | Oat PBMA | Almond PBMA | Soya PBMA | Rice PBMA | Coconut PBMA | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Macrominerals | Calcium | 113–134 (121.2) | 17.4–146 (114.1) | 20.20–188.0 (156.4) | 8.00–187.5 (74.65) | 3.90–146.0 (90.79) | 0–187.5 (65.52) |
Magnesium | 10.0–13.3 (11.1) | 6.0 (−) | 6.67–9.50 (7.78) | 14.2–20.4 (16.8) | 2.10–14.6 (8.34) | 6.67–17.1 (15.1) | |
Sodium | 34.6–50.4 (44.1) | 36.4–65.0 (46.9) | 38.3–75.0 (64.2) | 4.00–100.0 (46.04) | 25.0–75.0 (38.8) | 0.62–62.0 (23.9) | |
Potassium | 132–156 (144.2) | 17.0–50.0 (37.1) | 23.0–79.0 (62.4) | 100.0–286.0 (157.4) | 15.4–83.0 (37.1) | 14.58–204.58 (60.2) | |
Phosphorus | 48.1–101.0 (84.4) | 14.7–42.0 (24.6) | 8.00–21.4 (14.95) | 31.1–45.0 (38.1) | 7.60–62.0 (39.46) | 8.33–41.0 (24.67) | |
Trace elements | Iron | 0.02–0.05 (0.03) | 0.03–0.75 (0.39) | 0.08–0.30 (0.24) | 0.30–0.46 (0.40) | 0.01–0.45 (0.16) | 0.04–2.73 (0.62) |
Copper | 0.01–0.03 (0.01) | 0.01 (−) | 0.03 (−) | 0.11 (−) | 0.01 (−) | 0.13 (−) | |
Zinc | 0.37–0.48 (0.42) | 0.04 (−) | 0.09–0.63 (0.24) | 0.21–0.31 (0.26) | 0.05–0.31 (0.18) | 0.16–0.63 (0.30) | |
Selenium | 0.00–3.70 (2.33) | − | − | − | − | 0.0–2.0 (1.50) | |
Manganese | 0.002 (−) | 0.045 (−) | 0.069 (−) | 0.144 (−) | 0.023 (−) | 0.25 (−) | |
References | [8,24,26,27,69] | [8,26,29,31,69] | [8,24,26,32,69] | [8,24,26,29,33,69] | [8,24,26,34,69] | [8,24,26,35,69] |
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Antunes, I.C.; Bexiga, R.; Pinto, C.; Roseiro, L.C.; Quaresma, M.A.G. Cow’s Milk in Human Nutrition and the Emergence of Plant-Based Milk Alternatives. Foods 2023, 12, 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12010099
Antunes IC, Bexiga R, Pinto C, Roseiro LC, Quaresma MAG. Cow’s Milk in Human Nutrition and the Emergence of Plant-Based Milk Alternatives. Foods. 2023; 12(1):99. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12010099
Chicago/Turabian StyleAntunes, I. C., R. Bexiga, C. Pinto, L. C. Roseiro, and M. A. G. Quaresma. 2023. "Cow’s Milk in Human Nutrition and the Emergence of Plant-Based Milk Alternatives" Foods 12, no. 1: 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12010099