Role of Bioactive Compounds in Obesity: Metabolic Mechanism Focused on Inflammation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Physiopathology of Obesity
2.1. Inflammation in Adipose Tissue
Adipokines | Segregation Molecules | Effect | Author |
---|---|---|---|
CRP | Increases the expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intracellular adhesion (ICAM-1), and E-selectin in vascular endothelial cells Increases the secretion of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) | Participates in the coronary and aortic atherosclerosis that leads to cardiac events | [51] |
TNF-α | Decrease of nitric oxide (NO) Increase of endothelin1 (ET-1), angiotensin II (ATII), oxidized low-density lipoproteins (oxLDL), ICAM-1, VCAM-1, MCP-1, CD40/CD40L, and leukocyte adhesion | Increases foam cell formation Increases smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation and migration Expansion of the injury area Increases platelet adhesion Increases leptin concentration | [52] |
IL-6 | Increases the concentration of free fatty acids (FFAs), C-reactive protein (CRP), and nitric oxide (NO) | Induces insulin resistance Decreases hepatic insulin clearance, insulin-dependent hepatic glycogen synthesis, glucose uptake in adipose cells | [53,54] |
IL-1β | Inhibition of the insulin-transduction pathway Inhibition of β-cell function Destruction of β-cell mass Induces the transcriptional activation of inflammatory genes | [55,56] | |
MCP1 | Strongly implicated in adipose tissue macrophage (ATM) recruitment, adipose expansion and remodeling, and angiogenesis | [30] | |
IFN-γ | Cytokine secretion | Induces attraction of monocytes towards the activation of M1-type macrophages originating from proinflammatory cytokine secretion | [57] |
PAI-1 | Increases the proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) | Increases foam cell formation Increases platelet adhesion (thrombosis) Inhibition of the residual plasminogen activator | [58] |
Resistin | Increases endoteline-1 (ET-1), angiotensine (ATII), oxLDL, intracellular adhesion (ICAM-1), VCAM-1, MCP-1, CD40/CD40L, leukocyte adhesion, and VSMC Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of cytokines in adipocytes and endothelial cells | Decreases NO release Increases in foam cell formation Increases in proliferation and migration of SMC and the expansion of injury area Increases in platelet adhesion and, as a consequence, thrombosis | [59,60] |
Visfatin | Induces ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin, IL-8, IL-6, MCP-1, fibroblast growth factor-2(FGF-2), and metalloproteinase MMP-2/-9 production Increases the release of ROS (reactive oxygen species) | [60,61] | |
Vaspin | Overexpressed in the obesity state Induces phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/ Protein kinase (PI3K/AKT) activation, increases both glucose transporter type-4 (GLUT4) expression and translocation, and promotes insulin-stimulated glucose | [62] | |
Angiotensinogen | Stimulates ICAM, VCAM-1, MCP-1, and factors stimulant of colonies of macrophages M-CSF production. | Decreases NO bioavailability Decreases vasorelaxation mechanisms and increases platelet adhesion to the vascular wall | [44,63] |
Leptin | Increases VCAM-1 | In hyperleptinemia, the inflammatory process increases Increases oxidative stress Improves vasorelaxation Increases vascular permeability | [52,64] |
2.2. Obesity and Its Comorbidities
2.2.1. Type-2 Diabetes
2.2.2. Cardiovascular Disease
2.2.3. Cancer
2.2.4. Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Diseases | Description | Author |
---|---|---|
Dyslipidemia | This pathology is due to the consequence of lipolysis produced in the adipocyte, increasing the levels of free fatty acids and increasing the synthesis of hepatic triglycerides, which, in turn, leads to an increase in VLDL. On the other hand, the decline in HDL-c is due to the decrease of Apo A-I, CETP, and LCAT, which inhibits the expression of ABCA1, ABCG1, and SR-B1. The cytokines and adipokines are responsible for these alterations in the adipose tissue | [99] |
Gallbladder disease | Gallstones originate from the accumulation of cholesterol monohydrate crystals precipitating in gallbladder bile. Therefore, an increase in weight stimulates the risk of gallstones. | [100] |
Hyperuricemia | An alteration with increased serum uric acid level development to gout due to monosodium urate crystals depositing mainly in the joints. These conditions increase with obesity due to the production of urates. | [101] |
Osteoarthritis | Although the damage is not clear, it has been found that the dysregulation of adipokines (adiponectin, apelin, leptin, lipocalin-2, visfatin, chemerin, and resistin) and cartilage extracellular matrix degradation in the muscle–skeletal system exerts deleterious effects on the joint. | [102] |
Hypothyroidism | Lower free irosin 4 and higher tirosin-stimulating Hormone levels are associated with fat accumulation. Modified thyroid function with normal feedback regulation may be the cause of alterations in energy expenditure with subsequent increases in BMI and weight | [103] |
3. A Brief Overview of the Properties and Dietary Effects of Some Bioactive Compounds in Obesity
3.1. Polyphenol Compounds
3.1.1. Phenolic Acids
3.1.2. Flavonoids
3.1.3. Betalains
3.1.4. Carotenoids
3.2. Clinical Evidence
3.3. Antioxidant Fiber Dietary
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bioactive Compounds | In Vivo | Mechanisms of Action | Toxicity | Author |
---|---|---|---|---|
Phenol acids | ||||
Caffeic acid | C57BL/6 mice with diet HFD | The mechanism focuses on an increase of the phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase and decreasing acetyl carboxylase, a downstream target of AMP-activated-protein kinase (AMPK). | No maternal toxicity | [145] |
Ellagic acid | High-fat diet-induced obesity SD rats. | Decreases the mRNA expression of Zfp423 and Aldh1a1 (responsibilities of WAT plasticity) and increases the mRNA expression of the brown adipocyte, as well as markers UCP1, PRDM16, Cidea, PGC1α, and Ppar-α; and beige markers, including CD137and TMEM26. It also elevates the expression of UPC1 in iWAT (specific protein of brown adipocyte). | No-observed-effect level 3011 mg/kg bw/day (males) No-observed-effect level 3254 mg/kg bw/day and 778 mg/kg (females) (rats) | [13,146] |
Gallic acid | Mice (Swiss) model fed with high-fat diet | Induces an increase in SIRT1 and PGC1-α, might be responsible for thermogenesis activation under a high-fat diet. | Non-toxic >100 mg /L | [12,147] |
p-Coumaric acid | Mouse model of high-fat diet-induced obesity | The mechanism of the action on obesity is mediated by the mTORC1-RPS6 pathway, regulating the Ucp1, HSL, and GUT-4 proteins | Low toxicity 2850 mg/kg bodyweight (mice) | [14,148] |
Vanillic acid | High-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice and genetically obese db/db mice | The mechanism of action is due to the increase in the cellular NAD levels, and AMPK activates the NAD-dependent deacetylase SIRT1, which results in the deacetylation or activation of PGC1 and, therefore, a thermogenic effect. | 1000 mg/kg b.w (rats) | [149,150] |
Flavonoids | ||||
Capsaicin | Mouse (Adult male WT and TRPV1−/− (B6.129X1Trpv1 tm1Jul/J) model of HFD-induced obesity. | Intracellular Ca2+ rises via TRPV1 channels stimulated by CAP, activating CaMKII/AMPK, which phosphorylates and activates SIRT-1. This causes the deacetylation of PPAR-γ and PRDM-16 and facilitates their interaction to promote the browning of WAT (white adipose tissue). | Oral LD50 118.8 mg/kg for males and 97.4 mg/kg for females (mice) Male rats—161.2 mg/kg, and female rats—148.1 mg/kg | [151,152] |
Anthocyanins | Male C57BL/6J mice fed a modified AIN-93M control diet containing high fat/high cholesterol | Inhibition of IKKε expression in adipose tissue occurs. Prevents the action of macrophage infiltration by attenuating the action of IKKε in energy preservation. | No toxic effects of anthocyanins identified 20 mg/kg/d mice; >3 g/d guinea pigs and rats; >2.4% body weight in beagle dogs and 9 g/kg/d in rats, mice, and rabbits | [153,154] |
Pterostilbene | Zucker rats (fa/fa) model of genetic obesity | Present effect thermogenic and oxidative capacity of brown adipose tissue, due to increase of gene expression of Ucp1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ co-activator 1 α (Pgc-1α), carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1b (Cpt1b), nuclear respiratory factor 1 (Nfr1), and cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox2); PPARα, PGC-1α, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), UCP1 and glucose transporter (GLUT4); and enzyme activity of CPT 1b and citrate synthase (CS) were assessed in interscapular brown adipose tissue. | No significant toxic effects | [11,155] |
Resveratrol | High-fat diet (HFD)-induced adipogenesis and inflammation in the epididymal fat tissues of mice C57BL/6J. | There are changes in the GalR1, GalR2, PKCd, and p-ERK protein expressions, with subsequent changes in the Cyc-D and E2F1 expressions, on galanin-mediated adipogenesis cascades in the epididymal adipose tissue. Decrease adipogenic transcription factors (PPARg2, C/EBPa, SREBP-1c, and LXR) and their target genes (FAS, LPL, aP2, and leptin) were suppressed. TLR4 uses MyD88-dependent and MyD88-independent pathways, whereas TLR2 signals only in the MyD88-dependent manner. The MyD88-dependent pathway uses TRAF6 and IRF5, leading to its nuclear translocation and cooperation with NF-kB. The MyD88-independent pathway uses TRIF in activating NF-kB in either a TRAF6-dependent or TRAF6-independent mechanism. TRIF associates with TBK1 and IKKi, which in turn leads p-IRF3. Resveratrol limits changes in the expression of TLR2, TLR4, and downstream molecules (MyD88, Tirap, TRIF, TRAF6, IRF5, p-IRF3, and NF-kB), along with the subsequent changes in the cytokines (TNFα, IFNα, IFNβ, and IL-6) implicated in the TLR2/4-mediated pro-inflammatory signaling cascades on adipose tissue | No toxic effect in humans | [10,156] |
Curcumin | Mice C57BL/6 fed a high fat diet | There is a suppression of acetyl CoA conversion to malonyl CoA. Lower levels of malonyl CoA increase CPT-1 expression, promoting fatty acid oxidation. The phosphorylated AMPK also suppresses the expression of GPAT-1, which results in reduced fatty acid esterification. The phosphorylated AMPK inhibits PPAR-γ and C/EBP-α transcription factors. | No toxicity from curcumin | [157,158] |
Quercetin | Diet-induced obese (DIO) ICR mouse | Blocked protein levels of the key adipogenic factors C/EBPβ, C/EBPα, PPARγ, and FABP4, and the TG-synthesis enzymes lipin1, DGAT1, and LPAAT. Inhibited MAPK, ERK1/2, JNK, and p38MAPK, and MCP-1 and TNF-α in adipocytes and macrophages | 285–3000 mg/kg toxicity present | [159,160] |
Apigenin | High-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese C57BL/6 (C57) mice | Apigenin binds to non-phosphorylated STAT3, reduces STAT3 phosphorylation and transcriptional activity in visceral adipose tissue, and consequently reduces the expression of the STAT3 target gene cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36). The reduced CD36 expression in adipocytes reduces the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ) which is the critical nuclear factor in adipogenesis. | 300 mg/kg (mice) No toxicity | [161,162] |
Scutellarein | Mouse model of obesity induced by high-fat diet (HFD) feeding. | There is suppression of the expression of cytokine genes TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and NF-κB. | Minimally toxic or non-toxic in rodents | [163,164] |
Luteolin | C57BL/6J mice model of DIO (diet-induced obesity: high-fat diet) | It is modulated the TLR signaling pathway on pro-inflammatory response. There is a decrease in EMR1 and CCL7, which impacts adipose tissue, increases lipolysis and the TCA cycle, reduces the pro-inflammatory response, adipokine dysregulation, adipocyte macrophage infiltration and accumulation, fibrosis, pancreatic β cell dysfunction, hepatic lipotoxicity, insulin resistance, and chronic inflammation. Another mechanism of action is the interaction in the AMPK/PCG1α. Elevates the expressions of thermogenic genes and the activities of AMPK/PCG1a signaling molecules. | No adverse effect or toxicity | [165,166,167] |
Chlorogenic acid Caffeine | ICR mice with high-fat diet | Increases AMPK phosphorylation and p-AMPK up-regulates the expression of ATGL and HSL, promoting the hydrolysis of triglycerides and the release of FA. Elevates ACO expression by the activation of AMPK (accelerated β-oxidation). Down-regulation of LXR-α and increase in p-AMPK restrain the expression of SPEBP1c, thereby down-regulating the expression of SCD1 and FAS to inhibit lipid synthesis and regulate lipid metabolism. | [168] | |
Catechin, Picatechin, Procyanidins | High-fat diet-fed C57BL/6 mice | Activated AMPK-α also induces the expression of UCPs and PGC-1a, which are involved in energy expenditure and thermogenesis | [169] | |
Cyanidin-3 O galactoside | Mice (C57BL/6) model with high-fat diet-induced obesity | Related to adipogenesis-related transcription factors (C/EBPs, PPAR-γ, and SREBP-1c) and coactivators (PGC-1α), and the down-regulation of specific adipogenesis-related genes affected by these transcription factors. | [170,171] | |
Other compounds | ||||
Betacyanins | High-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice | Reduces HFD-induced body weight gain, and ameliorates adipose tissue hypertrophy, hepatosteatosis, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance. Increases the expression levels of lipid metabolism-related genes (AdipoR2, Cpt1a, Cpt1b, Acox1, PPAR-γ, Insig1, and Insig2) and FGF21-related genes (β-Klotho and FGFR1/2), and decreases the expression level of Fads2, Fas, and FGF21 | [171] |
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Ramírez-Moreno, E.; Arias-Rico, J.; Jiménez-Sánchez, R.C.; Estrada-Luna, D.; Jiménez-Osorio, A.S.; Zafra-Rojas, Q.Y.; Ariza-Ortega, J.A.; Flores-Chávez, O.R.; Morales-Castillejos, L.; Sandoval-Gallegos, E.M. Role of Bioactive Compounds in Obesity: Metabolic Mechanism Focused on Inflammation. Foods 2022, 11, 1232. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11091232
Ramírez-Moreno E, Arias-Rico J, Jiménez-Sánchez RC, Estrada-Luna D, Jiménez-Osorio AS, Zafra-Rojas QY, Ariza-Ortega JA, Flores-Chávez OR, Morales-Castillejos L, Sandoval-Gallegos EM. Role of Bioactive Compounds in Obesity: Metabolic Mechanism Focused on Inflammation. Foods. 2022; 11(9):1232. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11091232
Chicago/Turabian StyleRamírez-Moreno, Esther, José Arias-Rico, Reyna Cristina Jiménez-Sánchez, Diego Estrada-Luna, Angélica Saraí Jiménez-Osorio, Quinatzin Yadira Zafra-Rojas, José Alberto Ariza-Ortega, Olga Rocío Flores-Chávez, Lizbeth Morales-Castillejos, and Eli Mireya Sandoval-Gallegos. 2022. "Role of Bioactive Compounds in Obesity: Metabolic Mechanism Focused on Inflammation" Foods 11, no. 9: 1232. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11091232