The Effects of Physical Exercise on Saliva Composition: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Salivary Secretion
3.2. Lysozyme and Lactoferrin
3.3. Lactate
3.4. Oral Peroxides–Nitric Oxide
3.5. Salivary A-Amylase (sAA)
3.6. Salivary Cortisol (S-Cortisol)
3.7. Steroids–Testosterone
3.8. Salivary Immunoglobulin A (s-IgA)
3.9. Immunoglobulin G (IgG) & Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
3.10. Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (s-IGF-1)
3.11. Salivary MicroRNAs
3.12. Melatonin
3.13. Uric Acid
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Evaluated Parameter of Saliva | First Author/Reference Number | Publication Date | Populations (Mean Age) | Primary Outcomes |
---|---|---|---|---|
A-amylase (sAA) | Yasuda N [15] | 2021 | 11 Males cycling | Increase in A-amylase activity after moderately long-lasting exercise, regardless of exogenous carbohydrate availability |
Wunsch K [16] | 2019 | 42 Males Acute exercise (24.1 ± 3) 42 Males placebo exercise (23.8 ± 2.3) | Increase in A-amylase concentration after moderate-to-high ergometer cycling. No difference in A-amylase peak level between habitual and acute exercise. | |
Allgrove J [17] | 2008 | 10 Males (23) | Increase A-amylase concentration after exercise, followed by a return to pre-existing values 1 h post-exercise. (Cycling) An increase in s-IgA was independent of exercise intensity. | |
Li TL [18] | 2004 | 8 Males (28.9 ± 1.8) | Increase in A-amylase activity after exercise (cycling, 60% VO max, 2 h) | |
Walsh NP [19] | 1999 | 8 Well trained males (25 ± 1) | Decrease in A-amylase concentration immediately after exercise. (cycling) | |
Chatterton R [20] | 1996 | 47 Medical students | Increase in A-amylase concentration. After exercise | |
Cortisol (S-cortisol) | Hough J [21] | 2021 | 23 Active males, cycle ergometer (21 ± 3) | Increase in the s-cortisol immediately after the exercise. Decrease in the s-cortisol 30 min post-exercise |
Ushiki K [22] | 2020 | 54 Participants (22) | Different rates of change in s-cortisol, depending on the intensity of the exercise. Decrease of s-cortisol levels after morning exercise. Increase of s-cortisol levels after afternoon exercise. | |
Pearlmutter P [23] | 2020 | 22 Athletes 26 Non-athletes (22 ± 3) | Decrease in s-cortisol concentration after exercise. Workout intensity affected changes among athletes and non-athletes. In non-athletes, the s-cortisol concentration decreased more compared to athletes. | |
Rahman MS [24] | 2019 | 945 Participants | Reduced s-cortisol levels after 12 weeks of physical exercise | |
Wunsch K [16] | 2019 | 42 Males Acute exercise (24.1 ± 3) 42 Males placebo exercise (23.8 ± 2.3) | Increase in s-cortisol concentration after moderate-to-high ergometer cycling. Habitual exercise can reduce s-cortisol peak concentrations. | |
Wood CJ [25] | 2018 | 164 Females (20 ± 3.4) | Increase in s-cortisol levels until 10 min of walking. The decline is s-cortisol levels after 10 min of walking. Participants with a more excellent fitness presented lower s-cortisol levels during walking, | |
Crewther BT [26] | 2013 | 14 Rugby players (23.3 ± 3.5) | Decrease in salivary cortisol before games. | |
Gillum T [27] | 2013 | 14 Marathon runners (43.7 ± 9.9) | Increase in s-cortisol concentration after exercise. | |
Ida I [28] | 2013 | 18 Outpatients (45.9 ± 13.3) | Decrease in s-cortisol before, immediately after and ten minutes after the exercise session. | |
He CS [29] | 2010 | 8 Basketball players (20.5 ± 0.3) | Increase in s-cortisol concentration during the intensive training and competition period | |
Budde S [30] | 2010 | 40 High school students (14.35) | Increase in s-cortisol post-exercise. No effect of physical activity level on the s-cortisol before and after exercise. (Sprinting) | |
Allgrove J [31] | 2009 | 16 Active adults (22 ± 4) | Increase in s-cortisol levels post-exercise. | |
Thomas NE [32] | 2009 | 17 School children (15.5 ± 0.4) | Increase in salivary cortisol after exercise. (Cycling) | |
Allgrove J [17] | 2008 | 10 Males (23) | No change in s-cortisol levels immediately after exercise. (Cycling) Increase in s-cortisol levels, 1 h after the training. Cortisol levels were higher in high-intensity training. | |
Gozansky WS [33] | 2005 | 12 Participants (23–65) | Significant correlation of salivary cortisol with serum cortisol. | |
Neary JP [34] | 2002 | 8 Physical education students Females (21 ± 2) | Significant correlation among the levels of s-cortisol, serum cortisol and urinary cortisol. | |
Sugano A [35] | 2000 | 7 Participants (61.9 ± 11.8) | Decrease in s-cortisol levels post-exercise. (Water exercise) Decrease in s-cortisol levels post-exercise. (Land stretching) No difference in s-cortisol levels among water and land physical exercise. | |
Filaire E [36] | 1996 | 10 Swimmers (18.5 ± 1.2) 14 Handball players 7 Sedentary participants | Increase in s-cortisol post-exercise only in handball players. Higher s-cortisol concentrations the following to exercise morning for handball players compared to swimmers and sedentary participants. | |
Port K [37] | 1991 | 6 Males | Increase in s-cortisol levels, especially in intensive training (Ergometer cycling) | |
Cook NJ [38] | 1986 | 8 Marathon runners (35.1 ± 8.1) | Increase in salivary cortisol during the marathon. Return to baseline levels, some hours after the marathon. | |
Cystatins | Sant’Anna M [39] | 2019 | 20 Pentathletes (28 ± 6) | Increase in the secretion of S-type cystatins and cystatin C after aerobic and anaerobic exercise |
Ferritin | Franco-Martinez L [40] | 2019 | 18 Males (21.2 ± 4.2) | No difference in ferritin concentration in saliva after exercise. No correlation between blood lactate and salivary ferritin |
Immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) | Yasuda N [15] | 2021 | 11 Males | No change in s-IgA after moderately long-lasting exercise (2 h, cycling) |
Rapson A [41] | 2020 | 46 Participants (23.7 ± 3.5) | Salivary free light chains (FLCs) follow the same pattern with the fluctuation of s-IgA. | |
Tiernan C [42] | 2020 | 19 Rugby players (19.7 ± 1.1) | A decrease in 65% or more of sIgA was associated with an increased risk within the following 2 weeks for contracting an upper respiratory tract infection. Not a significant association between s-IgA levels and training load. | |
Engels HJ [43] | 2018 | 50 Female participants | Increase in s-IgA concentration immediately after exercise. Return to the s-IgA pre-exercise levels 2 h after exercise. | |
Gillum T [44] | 2014 | 18 Participants | Increase in s-IgA, 1 h after exercise | |
Gillum T [27] | 2013 | 14 Marathon runners (43.7 ± 9.9) | Decrease in s-IgA concentration after exercise. | |
He CS [29] | 2010 | 8 Basketball players (20.5 ± 0.3) | Decrease in s-IgA concentration during the training and competition period | |
Davison G [45] | 2009 | 12 Males cycling | Increase in s-IgA after exercise | |
Allgrove J [31] | 2009 | 16 Active adults (22 ± 4) | Increase in s-IgA concentration post-exercise. | |
Allgrove J [17] | 2008 | 10 Males (23) | Increase in s-IgA concentration after exercise, followed by a return to pre-existing values 1 h post-exercise. (Cycling) An increase in s-IgA was independent of exercise intensity | |
Sari-Sarraf V [46] | 2006 | 8 Participants (24.1 ± 3.3) | No difference in s-IgA concentration and secretion rate during or after training. (standing, walking, jogging, cruising and sprinting) | |
Costa RJS [47] | 2005 | 32 Male triathletes, (32.1 ± 9) | Increased s-IgA concentration post-exercise in high carbohydrate consuming group. | |
Tzai-Li Li [48] | 2005 | 25 Participants (29) | Increase in s-IgA concentration after exercise, followed by a return to pre-existing values 2 h post-exercise. (Cycling) | |
Tiollier E [49] | 2005 | 21 Military cadets | No difference in s-IgA levels after 3-weeks of training. Increased s-IgA levels after 5 days of training and return to pre-training levels after 1 week of recovery. | |
Li TL [18] | 2004 | 8 Males cycling (28.9 ± 1.8) | Increase in s-IgA concentration after exercise (60% VOmax, 2 h) No difference in s-IgA secretion rate after training. | |
Akimoto T [50] | 2003 | 45 Participants (64.9 ± 8.4) | Increase in s-IgA concentration 12 months of physical exercise training. Increase in s-IgA concentration after 4 months of physical exercise training. | |
Nehlsen-Cannarella S [51] | 2000 | 20 Elite female rowers (22.6 ± 0.5) 19 Non-athletic females (24.6 ± 0.8) | 77% Higher s-IgA concentration in the rowers compared to non-athletes | |
Walsh NP [19] | 1999 | 8 Well trained males (25 ± 1) | S-IgA secretion rate was not affected by the exercise. (cycling) | |
Shimizu K [52] | 2007 | 114 Men (71.6 ± 0.4) 170 Women (71 ± 0.3) Elderly volunteers | The S-IgA flow rate and secretion rate increased when physical activity was improved. | |
Gleeson M [53] | 1995 | 26 Elite swimmers (16–24) 12 Athletic participants (19–41) | Increase in s-IgA levels in professional swimmers immediately after exercise. There is no difference in pre-exercise s-IgA levels in professional swimmers compared to the athletic participant. | |
Mackinnon LT [54] | 1994 | 10 Joggers (20–35) 7 Marathon runners (20–35) 14 Swimmers (16–20) | No change in s-IgA secretion rates in Joggers after exercise, irrespective of exercise intensity. Decrease in s-IgA secretion rates in marathon runners after 90 min of running after the first day of exercise. There is no difference in s-Iga concentration, in stale compared to well-trained swimmers, during a season of 6 months. | |
Mackinnon LT [55] | 1993 | 12 Physical education students (17–25) | Increase in S-IgA concentration after training, A decline in S-IgA flow rate after training. (Cycling) | |
McDowell SL [56] | 1992 | 24 Novice runners (22.1 ± 3) | Decrease in s-IgA levels immediately after the exercise. Increased compared to prior exercise, s-IgA concentration 1 h post-exercise. S-IgA levels are independent of salivary cortisol. | |
Tomasi T [57] | 1982 | 8 Nationally ranked skiers (23.5) 8 Non-competitive skiers | Decrease in s-IgA levels after exercise. (skiing) Lower s-IgA levels of the skiers compared to non-competitive athletes. | |
Immunoglobulin G (s-IgG) | Nehlsen-Cannarella S [51] | 2000 | 20 Elite female rowers (22.6 ± 0.5) 19 Non-athletic females (24.6 ± 0.8) | No difference in s-IgG concentration among the rowers compared to non-athletes |
Gleeson M [53] | 1995 | 26 Elite swimmers (16–24) 12 Athletic participants (19–41) | Higher s-IgG levels in professional swimmers compared to the athletes post-exercise. There is no difference in s-IgG levels among the professional swimmer and athletic participants post-exercise. | |
Mackinnon LT [55] | 1993 | 12 Physical education students (17–25) | Increase in S-IgG concentration after training, A decline in S-IgG flow rate after training. (Cycling) | |
Tomasi T [57] | 1982 | 8 Nationally ranked skiers (23.5) 8 Non-competitive skiers (25.5) | Same s-IgG levels prior and post-exercise. No difference in s-IgG levels among the skiers and non-competitive athletes. | |
Immunoglobulin M (s-IgM) | Nehlsen-Cannarella S [51] | 2000 | 20 Elite female rowers (22.6 ± 0.5) 19 Non-athletic females (24.6 ± 0.8) | No difference in s-IgM concentration among the rowers compared to non-athletes |
Gleeson M [53] | 1995 | 26 Elite swimmers (16–24) 12 Athletic participants (19–41) | Higher s-IgM levels in professional swimmers compared to the athletes post-exercise. There is no difference in s-IgM levels among the professional swimmer and athletic participants post-exercise. | |
Mackinnon LT [55] | 1993 | 12 Physical education students (17–25) | Increase in S-IgM concentration after training, A decline in S-IgM flow rate after training. (Cycling) | |
Insulin-like growth factor I (s-IGF-I) | Antonelli G [58] | 2009 | 18 Cyclists (19 ± 1) | Increase in s-IGF-I after exercise. |
Antonelli G [59] | 2007 | 15 Volleyball players 14 Sedentary females | Lower s-IGF-I in athletes compared to sedentary females before exercise. | |
Lactate | Almasi G [60] | 2021 | 31 Elite adolescent athletes | Increase in the concentration of salivary lactate after exercise. (200 m freestyle swimming) |
Hermann R [61] | 2019 | 32 Males (24.3 ± 3.3) | Increase in the concentration of salivary lactate after ergometer | |
Franco-Martinez L [40] | 2019 | 18 Males (21.2 ± 4.2) | Increase in the concentration of lactate in the saliva after exercise. (Sprinting) Lactate in saliva was correlated with blood lactate only in untrained subjects | |
Santos RV [62] | 2006 | 15 Expert marathon racers | Increase in the concentration of salivary lactate after 18 km of running. | |
Segura R [63] | 1996 | 9 Amateur sportsmen (22.2 ± 1.9) | Increase in the concentration of salivary lactate both for anaerobic and aerobic exercise. | |
Ohkuwa T [64] | 1995 | 7 Long-distance runners (18.6 ± 0.8) 5 Sprinters (19.3 ± 1.1) | Increase the salivary lactate concentration both in 400-m and in the 3000-m run. Higher lactate concentration after 400-m run for sprinters compared to long-distance runners. | |
Port K [37] | 1991 | 6 Males | Steadily increase of the lactate throughout the exercise | |
Lysozyme, lactoferrin | Gillum T [44] | 2017 | 11 Participants (20.3 ± 0.8) | Increase in lysozyme secretion rate after exercise. (ran for 45 min at 75% of VO2peak) |
De Feo P [65] | 1989 | 9 Male Participants (21.1 ± 1.1) 9 Female (22.4 ± 2.4) | Increase in lactoferrin secretion rate after exercise. Increase in lysozyme secretion rate after exercise. | |
Gillum T [27] | 2013 | 14 Marathon runners (43.7 ± 9.9) | Increase in lactoferrin concentration after exercise. Lysozyme concentration does not change during exercise. | |
He CS [29] | 2010 | 8 Basketball players (20.5 ± 0.3) | Decrease in lactoferrin concentration during the training and competition period | |
West NP [66] | 2010 | 17 Elite rowers (24.3 ± 4) 18 Sedentary individuals (27.2 ± 7) | 60% decreased lactoferrin concentration before exercise in elite rowers compared to sedentary individuals 50% increase in the lysozyme concentration and 50% increase in lactoferrin after graded exercise. | |
Allgrove J [17] | 2008 | 10 Males (23) | Increased lysozyme concentration after exercise for 1 h. (Cycling) | |
Melatonin | Carlson LA [67] | 2019 | 12 Regularly exercising men | Increased salivary melatonin after morning exercise compared to afternoon exercise. |
MicroRNAs | Hicks S [68] | 2020 | Former football players (73 ± 8) Younger participants (20 ± 5) | Non-invasive measurement of saliva miRNAs, (miR-340-5p, miR-339-3p, miR-361-5p, miR-28-3p) may have utility to identify individuals at risk for chronic concussion symptoms. |
Nitric Oxide | Di Pietro V [69] | 2018 | 52 Rugby Athletes (26) | Differentially expressed miRNAs could be particularly suitable for concussion assessment. |
Gonzalez D [70] | 2008 | 24 Participants (27.2 ± 9.6) | No change in nitric concentration after aerobic exercise. | |
Panossian AG [71] | 1999 | 109 Athletes (32–44) | Increase in nitric oxide concentration after exercise in amateur athletes. | |
Peroxides | Damirchi A [72] | 2010 | 10 University students | Increase in peroxide secretion rate at the 75%VO(2 max) after exercise. Decrease 1 h after exercise. |
Gillum T [27] | 2013 | 14 Marathon runners (43.7 ± 9.9) | Salivary flow rate not changed by the exercise. | |
Damirchi A [72] | 2010 | 10 University students | The salivary flow rate does not change by the exercise. (Treadmill runs) | |
Allgrove J [31] | 2009 | 16 Active adults (22 ± 4) | Decrease in saliva flow rate during exercise, followed by a return to pre-existing values 1 h post-exercise. (cycling) | |
Allgrove J [17] | 2008 | 10 Males (23) | Salivary flow rate not changed by the exercise. (Cycling) | |
Shimizu K [52] | 2007 | 114 Men (71.6 ± 0.4) 170 Women (71 ± 0.3) Elderly volunteers | No difference in salivary flow rate when physical activity is improved. | |
Sari-Sarraf V [46] | 2006 | 8 Participants (24.1 ± 3.3) | Decrease in saliva flow rate during exercise. (standing, walking, jogging, cruising and sprinting) Duration of exercise significantly influenced the reduction in saliva flow rate. | |
Tzai-Li Li [48] | 2005 | 25 Participants (29) | Decrease in saliva flow rate during exercise, followed by a return to pre-existing values 1 h post-exercise. (cycling) | |
Li TL [18] | 2004 | 8 Men cycling (28.9 ± 1.8) | Decrease in saliva flow rate after exercise (60% VOmax, 2 h) | |
Akimoto T [50] | 2003 | 45 Participants (64.9 ± 8.4) | No difference in saliva flow rate after 12 months of physical exercise training. | |
Walsh NP [73] | 2002 | 15 Cyclists | Decrease in saliva flow rate after exercise | |
Nehlsen-Cannarella S [51] | 2000 | 20 Elite female rowers (22.6 ± 0.5) 19 Non-athletic females (24.6 ± 0.8) | No difference in saliva secretion rate among the professionals and non-athletic participants. | |
Walsh NP [19] | 1999 | 8 Well trained males (25 ± 1) | The saliva flow rate was not affected by the exercise. (cycling) | |
Blannin A [74] | 1998 | 18 Male with mixed physical fitness (23 ± 1) | Saliva flow rate reduced by moderate or high-intensity exercise | |
Steerenberg P [75] | 1997 | 42 Triathletes (34.1 ± 7.3) | Reduced saliva flow rate after the race | |
Pilardeau P [76] | 1990 | 12 Male | In normoxia or hypoxia, there is no difference in saliva flow rate after exercise. However, in the situation of acute hypoxia, reduced saliva flow rate after exercise. | |
Testosterone | Hough J [21] | 2021 | 23 Active males, cycle ergometer (21 ± 3) | Increase in the salivary testosterone immediately after the exercise. Decrease in the salivary testosterone 30 min post-exercise |
Cook CJ [77] | 2014 | 20 Rugby players (21.5 ± 1.4) | Increase in salivary testosterone after functional improvement. (Training) | |
Crewther BT [26] | 2013 | 14 Rugby players (23.3 ± 3.5) | Increase in salivary testosterone before winning games. | |
Budde S [30] | 2010 | 40 High school students (14.35) | Increase in the salivary testosterone after exercise. No effect of activity level on the salivary testosterone prior and after exercise. (Sprinting) | |
Crewther BT [78] | 2010 | 4 Male (20.8 ±3.5) 4 Female (20.8 ± 4.6) Olympic weightlifters | Significant correlation of pre-workout salivary testosterone, with the Olympic total lift, only for male weightlifters. | |
Thomas NE [32] | 2009 | 17 School children (15.5 ± 0.4) | Increase in salivary testosterone after exercise. (Cycling) | |
Filaire E [79] | 2000 | 14 National handball players (24.1 ± 2.6) 10 Sedentary women (23.5 ± 3.4) | Higher salivary testosterone for sedentary women, compared to professional players, at resting. Correlation among testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). | |
Cook NJ [38] | 1986 | 8 Marathon runners (35.1 ± 8.1) | Increase in salivary testosterone during the marathon. Increased salivary testosterone concentration, the days after the marathon. | |
Uric acid | Franco-Martinez L [40] | 2019 | 18 Males (21.2 ± 4.2) | No difference in uric concentration in saliva after exercise. Significantly negative correlation between uric acid and blood lactate. |
Gonzalez D [70] | 2008 | 24 Participants (27.2 ± 9.6) | Increase in uric acid by aerobic exercise. |
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Ntovas, P.; Loumprinis, N.; Maniatakos, P.; Margaritidi, L.; Rahiotis, C. The Effects of Physical Exercise on Saliva Composition: A Comprehensive Review. Dent. J. 2022, 10, 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/dj10010007
Ntovas P, Loumprinis N, Maniatakos P, Margaritidi L, Rahiotis C. The Effects of Physical Exercise on Saliva Composition: A Comprehensive Review. Dentistry Journal. 2022; 10(1):7. https://doi.org/10.3390/dj10010007
Chicago/Turabian StyleNtovas, Panagiotis, Nikolaos Loumprinis, Panagiotis Maniatakos, Loukia Margaritidi, and Christos Rahiotis. 2022. "The Effects of Physical Exercise on Saliva Composition: A Comprehensive Review" Dentistry Journal 10, no. 1: 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/dj10010007