Prediction of the Quality of Thermally Sprayed Copper Coatings on Laser-Structured CFRP Surfaces Using Hyperspectral Imaging
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Process Chain
2.2.1. Laser Pre-Treatment Process
- Insufficient ablation: carbon fibers still covered with plastic matrix.
- Optimal ablation: mostly exposed carbon fibers without damaged fibers.
- Damaging ablation: carbon fibers exposed of plastic matrix and a high amount of broken carbon fibers.
- The ablation pattern of the quality condition insufficient ablation can be assumed to be similar to the ablation pattern that would occur when treating a thick matrix layer.
- In contrast, it can be assumed that the ablation pattern of damaging ablation is similar to the ablation pattern that would occur when treating a thin matrix layer.
2.2.2. Thermal Spraying
2.2.3. Hyperspectral Imaging
2.2.4. Data Preprocessing and Analysis
2.2.5. Data Evaluation
2.2.6. Optical Characterization Method
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Laser Structuring Treatment
3.2. Coating Deposition
3.3. HSI Measurements of Laser Processed Surfaces
3.4. Data Analysis and Training
4. Conclusions
- An objective and automatic evaluation of the surface quality of CFRP samples after laser pretreatment was developed.
- Prediction of whether a complete coating or a defective and incomplete coating will occur on the specimens is possible with high confidence.
- Prediction of successfully coated areas of a thermal sprayed copper layer are possible with an accuracy of ~80% using developed deep learning models.
- The exact spatially resolved prediction of the coating adhesion is much less accurate and only partially successful.
5. Patents
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Hyperparameter | VNIR | Laser |
---|---|---|
Filters f | 16 | 8 |
Kernel size | 5 | 2 |
Down sampling steps | 2 | 4 |
Concatenate | True | False |
Residuen | True | True |
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Quality Condition | Average Power in W | Scanning Speed in mm/s | Hatch Distance in µm | Focal Length in mm | Spot Size in µm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insufficient ablation | 1.2 | 1200 | 20 | 160 | 20 |
Optimal ablation | 4.22 | ||||
Damaging ablation | 7.23 |
Current in A | Voltage in V | Spraying Distance in mm | Traverse Speed in m/s | Gas Pressure in MPa | Flow Rate in m3/h |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
80 | 40 | 150 | 1 | 0.6 | 142.6 |
Data | Precision (P) | Recall (R) | F1 Score | Balanced Accuracy | Mean Intersection over Union (IoU) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
VNIR | 0.954 ± 0.008 | 0.961 ± 0.014 | 0.957 ± 0.012 | 0.795 ± 0.031 | 0.880 ± 0.007 |
Laser | 0.952 ± 0.009 | 0.944 ± 0.011 | 0.948 ± 0.009 | 0.784 ± 0.039 | 0.860 ± 0.006 |
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Gebauer, J.; Gruber, F.; Holfeld, W.; Grählert, W.; Lasagni, A.F. Prediction of the Quality of Thermally Sprayed Copper Coatings on Laser-Structured CFRP Surfaces Using Hyperspectral Imaging. Photonics 2022, 9, 439. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9070439
Gebauer J, Gruber F, Holfeld W, Grählert W, Lasagni AF. Prediction of the Quality of Thermally Sprayed Copper Coatings on Laser-Structured CFRP Surfaces Using Hyperspectral Imaging. Photonics. 2022; 9(7):439. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9070439
Chicago/Turabian StyleGebauer, Jana, Florian Gruber, Wilhelm Holfeld, Wulf Grählert, and Andrés Fabián Lasagni. 2022. "Prediction of the Quality of Thermally Sprayed Copper Coatings on Laser-Structured CFRP Surfaces Using Hyperspectral Imaging" Photonics 9, no. 7: 439. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics9070439