Next Article in Journal
Thermo-Mechanical Characterization of the Orthorhombic Nonlinear Optical Crystal PbGa2GeSe6
Previous Article in Journal
High-Q Resonances Enabled by Bound States in the Continuum for a Dual-Parameter Optical Sensing
Previous Article in Special Issue
Decoding Anomalous Diffusion Using Higher-Order Spectral Analysis and Multiple Signal Classification
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

The Use of Core-Shell Nanoparticles in Photovoltaics

by
Alexander Quandt
1,2,3,*,
Daniel Wamwangi
1,4 and
Sandile Kumalo
1
1
School of Physics, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, South Africa
2
Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IFN-CNR), Characterization and Development of Materials for Photonics and Optoelectronics (CSMFO) Laboratory and Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK) Photonics Unit, Via Alla Cascata 56/C, 38123 Povo, TN, Italy
3
Photonics Laboratory of Angers LPhiA, SFR MATRIX, University of Angers, 2 Bd Lavoisier, 49045 Angers, France
4
Materials Physics Research Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, South Africa
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Photonics 2025, 12(6), 555; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12060555
Submission received: 2 March 2025 / Revised: 27 May 2025 / Accepted: 28 May 2025 / Published: 31 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Nonlinear Photonics)

Abstract

:
The field of photovoltaics (PV) continually seeks innovative materials solutions to enhance the efficiency and the stability of their standard devices. Core-shell nanoparticles have emerged as a promising new technology with unique structural attributes and widely tunable properties. This paper reviews the use of plasmonic core-shell nanoparticles in PV applications through various experimental validations. We describe advancements in the design and in the control over the properties of core-shell nanoparticles and highlight their integration into various solar cells, based on their ability to finely tune optical, electronic, and chemical properties. We also discuss experimental results for organic, perovskite, and dye-sensitized solar cells, where core-shell nanoparticles have been successfully deployed. Additionally, we identify gaps in the current research, such as the need for scalable synthesis methods and long-term stability assessments, and we will point out promising new developments at the frontier of that field.

1. Introduction

The global energy transition has highlighted the need for efficient, sustainable, and scalable renewable energy technologies [1]. Among these, photovoltaic (PV) systems, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, play a key role [2,3,4]. However, the cost of solar energy is not competitive with existing energy solutions. This is in part attributed to the costly fabrication of Si-based devices and the associated stringent material requirements. Therefore, the transition from bulk single crystal Si photoactive layers to thin films-based solar cells requires some practical trade-offs of the photo-absorption in the visible and near infra-red region. Even though there have been significant advancements in photoactive layer developments, challenges related to material properties, device physics, and operational limits continue to hinder their widespread adoption [5,6,7,8].
To address these challenges, researchers are exploring a range of strategies to improve light absorption, enhance the generation of excitons (bound electron-hole pairs) in materials where Coulombic attraction is significant, promote efficient exciton dissociation into free charge carriers, and facilitate the transport of these carriers in diverse photovoltaic devices. One promising approach is the incorporation of nanomaterials, particularly plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs), which exhibit tunable localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). This unique optical phenomenon enables the manipulation of light at the nanoscale, enhancing the optoelectronic properties of the active layer and thereby the efficiency of PV devices [9,10,11,12,13,14].
An important advancement in this field is the development of core-shell NPs. These nanoparticles consist of a plasmonic core (typically a noble metal) surrounded by a dielectric shell. There is a lot of flexibility in the design of these nanoparticles, which allows for tunable optical properties, exciton generation, and improved charge transport, making them attractive for PV applications [15,16,17]. Another variant of the core-shell structure is the bimetallic core-shell nanoparticle, which consists of a metallic core and a different metallic shell. These core-shell structures have attracted extensive research interest due to their high photon trapping abilities and greater flexibility in modulating the plasmonic resonances through shell thickness variations [18,19].
This review paper is structured as follows: In the following section, we discuss the design principles and the most useful properties of plasmonic core-shell NPs, with a focus on their optical and electronic properties. Next, we examine their integration into various types of solar cells, including organic, perovskite, dye-sensitized, and inorganic PV devices. We also address the challenges associated with deploying these NPs in commercial applications and propose potential solutions. Finally, we conclude with a discussion on future research directions in this rapidly evolving field.

2. Design and Properties of Core-Shell Nanoparticles

2.1. Introduction to Core-Shell Nanoparticles

Nanotechnology has revolutionized material science by enabling the careful design and development of complex material systems through the control of atomic configurations, dimensionality, and patterning. As a result, research on nanostructures of varying geometry and aspect ratios, such as core-shell nanoparticles, has gained traction due to their unique, tunable properties and broad applicability in fields such as energy, electronics, and biomedicine. Core-shell nanoparticles consist of a core material surrounded by a shell that modifies their optical, electrical, and chemical characteristics [20]. By adjusting the core diameter and shell thickness, the LSPR characteristics, such as resonance wavelength, intensity, and field enhancement, can be precisely tuned, enabling more effective control of light–matter interactions compared to homogeneous nanoparticles. Additionally, core-shell architectures provide an inherent advantage in passivating surface defects, a challenge often encountered in homogeneous nanoparticles [21,22,23].
The unique properties of core-shell nanoparticles arise from the interaction between the core and the shell, which modifies light–matter interactions, resonance phenomena, and charge transport [24]. By designing the core-shell interface, researchers can achieve enhanced light absorption, reduced recombination losses, and improved charge transport. These features are particularly relevant for advanced optoelectronic applications, including solar cells.

2.2. Synthesis and Characterisation

2.2.1. Synthesis Methods

The formation of core-shell nanoparticles typically relies on multi-step synthesis routes, each offering unique advantages in controlling particle composition, morphology, and functionality. Common strategies include chemical reduction, seed-mediated growth, thermal decomposition, laser ablation, and templating techniques. These methods are often sequentially to achieve the desired core-shell architecture.
Chemical reduction is frequently used as an initial step to generate metallic nanoparticle seeds. It involves reducing metal precursors in the presence of stabilizing agents and allows good control over particle size and dispersion. While not sufficient for core-shell formation on its own, this step serves as the foundation for subsequent shell growth [25,26,27,28,29,30].
Building upon this, seed-mediated growth involves depositing a secondary material around preformed cores. This approach enables precise control over the shell thickness, composition, and overall particle geometry, making it particularly suitable for tuning optical and electronic properties [31,32,33].
Thermal decomposition, involving the breakdown of organometallic or inorganic precursors at elevated temperatures, produces uniform nanoparticles with high crystallinity. When applied in sequence, the shell precursor decomposes after core formation, and this method can be adapted for core-shell synthesis. It is especially valued for its scalability and reproducibility when integrated into multi-step protocols [34,35,36,37].
Pulsed laser ablation in liquids (PLAL) is a clean and versatile technique for synthesizing core-shell nanostructures. It involves focusing a high-energy femtosecond laser on a solid target submerged in liquid, generating a plasma plume that condenses into nanoparticles. Core-shell architectures can be achieved by ablating layered targets or using sequential ablation steps [38]. A recent study demonstrated the fabrication of Ti@W core-shell photocatalytic films using PLAL, where tungsten was deposited onto titanium substrates without the use of surfactants [39]. The resulting films exhibited superhydrophilic surfaces (contact angle < 5°) and enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity, making them effective for self-cleaning applications.
Beyond discrete particle synthesis, creating ordered arrays of core-shell nanoparticles is critical for applications such as photonic crystals and sensors. Techniques like block copolymer lithography, often coupled with controlled shell growth, provide spatial patterning and uniformity over large areas. This method is particularly advantageous in device fabrication, where structural regularity is essential [40,41,42].

2.2.2. Characterization Techniques

The characterization of core-shell nanoparticles is crucial for understanding the relationship between their structural and optical properties, which are key to their performance in various applications. Several advanced techniques are used for this purpose, providing complementary insights into the morphology, composition, and optical behavior of these structures.
UV-Vis spectroscopy measurements are commonly employed to study optical absorption, particularly localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) and other optical properties when embedded in the photoactive or buffer layers. This method provides insights into how particle size, shape, and composition affect LSPR excitations and other modes [43,44,45]. The combination of UV-Vis spectroscopy with structural analysis helps establish correlations between the optical and structural properties of the nanoparticles.
Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy is a powerful tool for probing the electronic and optical properties of core-shell nanoparticles, particularly in the context of photovoltaic applications [46,47,48]. PL measurements, as shown in the spectra in Figure 1a, provide insights into exciton dynamics, recombination pathways, and energy transfer efficiency within the nanostructures. These properties are strongly influenced by the core-shell configuration, which can affect light absorption, emission peak positions and widths, and the spatial distribution of charge carriers [49,50,51]. For instance, spectral shifts observed in PL spectra can indicate changes in band alignment or enhanced exciton separation efficiency due to the presence of a shell layer [52,53,54,55]. Such analysis helps to distinguish between radiative recombination, non-radiative losses, and energy transfer mechanisms. Understanding and controlling these processes is essential for optimizing the design of core-shell nanoparticles to improve charge extraction and overall energy conversion efficiency in photovoltaic devices.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a standard method for structural analysis, offering high-resolution images of nanoparticle morphology. This technique, when applied to core-shell nanostructures, yields morphological information as shown in Figure 1b to enable precise correlation of optoelectronic properties with the geometrical measurements of core size, shell thickness, particle shape, and chemical composition. It also facilitates statistical analysis of particle size and shape distributions, which are critical for ensuring uniformity in nanoparticle synthesis and understanding their influence on performance [56,57,58,59].

2.3. Properties of Core-Shell Nanoparticles

2.3.1. Optical Properties

The optical absorption and scattering characteristics of core-shell nanoparticles are influenced by the aspect ratio, dielectric shell thickness, and core size. Adjusting the shell thickness (t) relative to the core radius ( R c o r e ) produces distinct optical effects. For thin shells (t < R c o r e ), plasmonic behaviour is primarily dominated by the core, with the dielectric shell acting mainly as a spacer that isolates the core from environmental interactions, enhancing scattering cross-sections but offering limited influence over the plasmon resonance position. When the shell thickness approaches the core radius (t ≈ R c o r e ), strong coupling between core and shell materials occurs, altering both absorption and scattering behavior and providing a balanced enhancement of the optical response. For thick shells (t > R c o r e ), the dielectric shell significantly modifies the surrounding electric field distribution, allowing fine-tuning of the plasmon resonance to align with specific wavelengths within the solar spectrum [60].
Core-shell nanoparticles offer significant advantages in PV applications. Their structural versatility allows for optimization of key processes, including light absorption, exciton generation, and charge transport. By surrounding the core with a dielectric shell, the nanoparticle’s interaction with light can be finely controlled, enhancing the overall photovoltaic process [61,62,63,64]. Commonly used dielectric materials for shells include silica (SiO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and alumina (Al2O3). These materials not only passivate the core surface but also improve light scattering and charge transport, contributing to enhanced PV device performance [65,66,67].
In addition, rare-earth oxides, such as cerium oxide (CeO2), yttrium oxide (Y2O3), and lanthanum oxide (La2O3), are emerging as promising shell materials. These oxides exhibit dynamic and active optical properties, making them ideal for advanced PV applications [68]. Their ability to facilitate down-conversion and up-conversion processes is particularly noteworthy. These processes involve converting high-energy photons into multiple low-energy photons or vice versa, effectively broadening the absorption spectrum and improving the overall efficiency of photovoltaic devices. Such advancements highlight the potential of core-shell nanoparticles to drive innovation and enhance performance in next-generation solar technologies [69,70,71].

2.3.2. Electrical and Chemical Properties

The diverse configurations of core-shell nanoparticles are shown in Figure 2. These architectures offer specific advantages depending on the target application. For instance, yolk–shell structures (Figure 2a) provide void space for energy storage or catalytic activity, while multilayered shells (Figure 2c) allow spectral tuning across multiple optical regimes. Surface-functionalized systems (Figure 2f) are crucial for biological or chemical sensing due to their customizable interfaces. The dielectric materials used in these NPs are typically insulators with low electrical conductivity but high polarizability suited for screening the electric field around the NP and to enhance plasmonic effects [72]. The quality of the interface between the metal and dielectric is critical, as smooth, well-defined interfaces minimize light scattering losses and allow for more efficient plasmonic resonance [73]. Some common dielectric materials include the following:
(i)
Silica ( S i O 2 ): Silica is chemically inert and transparent across the solar spectrum, making it ideal for encapsulating plasmonic cores like Au or Ag. The silica shell protects the core from oxidation and aggregation while fine-tuning the particle’s SPR [74].
(ii)
Titanium Dioxide ( T i O 2 ): TiO2 has a high refractive index, which enhances light scattering in core-shell nanoparticles. As a wide-bandgap semiconductor, it also facilitates electron transport in photovoltaic applications, especially in its anatase phase. Moreover, varying the shell thickness of the TiO2 layer enables fine-tuning of the plasmon resonance wavelength and optical response, providing broader design flexibility compared to many other dielectric materials [75,76,77].
(iii)
Zinc Oxide (ZnO): ZnO offers excellent electron mobility and is used as a shell material to enhance electron transport and light absorption in PV devices [78,79,80].
(iv)
Alumina (Al2O3): Alumina is chemically resistant and acts as an insulating shell that prevents recombination, enhancing charge transport [81].
(v)
Polymeric Shells: Flexible, organic-compatible polymers like polystyrene or polyvinyl alcohol are used in applications where dispersion within organic matrices is needed [82,83].

3. Applications of Core-Shell Nanoparticles in Photovoltaics

3.1. Organic Solar Cells

Organic solar cells remain a cost effective and versatile PV technology that has gained rapid research attention [84,85,86,87,88]. Despite their enormous potential, they are limited by the short exciton diffusion length, which constrains carrier extraction. These diffusion lengths restrict the thickness of the photoactive layer to hundreds of nm, thereby limiting the photo-absorption and power conversion efficiency (PCE) in general [89,90]. A strategy to circumvent this limitation involves the use of plasmonic nanostructures to efficiently boost the light harvesting by the photoactive layer. Therefore, various core-shell NPs have been widely integrated into organic solar cells to enhance light absorption, exciton generation, and charge transport [91,92,93]. In the following sections, we present examples of enhanced performance in organic solar cells achieved by incorporating core-shell structures into the device architecture.

3.1.1. Augmentation of Active Layers

A promising strategy for enhancing photovoltaic performance involves embedding core-shell nanoparticles directly into the active layer of solar cells, as illustrated in Figure 3a. This approach has demonstrated improved light absorption in materials such as P3HT- or PTB7-based blends [94,95]. Embedding core-shell nanoparticles within the active layer significantly enhances light harvesting by amplifying localized electromagnetic fields [96]. This enhancement leads to improved absorption and exciton generation, enabling more efficient energy conversion. Studies by Zhang et al. have shown that incorporating core-shell nanoparticles into P3HT- or PTB7-based blends boosts the absorption of incident light, facilitating greater exciton generation and contributing to improved overall device performance [97,98,99].

3.1.2. Augmentation of Buffer Layers

Another strategy consists of incorporating core-shell NPs into the buffer layers through the near-field effect, such as the hole transport layer (HTL) or electron transport layer (ETL), shown in Figure 3b,c. The incorporation may involve either regular arrays of core-shell NPs or random embedding within these layers. For large core-shell structures, typically with core diameters of 100 nm or more, light trapping due to strong scattering effects dominate over absorption. These larger NPs can act as efficient scattering centers, extending the optical path length within the device and thus promoting greater light absorption in the active layer [100,101].
In contrast, smaller core-shell NPs with core diameters below 50 nm are more effective at generating localized near-field effects, which can increase exciton generation at the active layer interface. The proximity of these small NPs to the organic materials amplifies the near-field enhancement, benefiting charge separation and improving carrier extraction [102,103,104,105].
In the case of regular arrays, the periodicity and spacing of the nanostructures determine the nature of the LSPR excitation, and broadband multiple absorption peaks are typically observed. Arrays of core-shell NPs can also serve as diffractive elements, further enhancing light trapping within the active layer and ultimately increasing light-harvesting efficiency [106,107]. These configurations offer versatile pathways for selecting core-shell NPs tailored to enhance specific aspects of device performance as depicted in Figure 3d, depending on whether light trapping or near-field enhancement is prioritized.

3.2. Perovskite Solar Cells

While perovskite solar cells have demonstrated remarkable efficiency and stability in recent years, they still face certain limitations in their optical properties [108,109,110]. One major challenge is sub-optimal light absorption in the near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths, which reduces the overall photocurrent generation [111,112,113,114,115,116]. Additionally, the need to balance transparency with light harvesting in semitransparent perovskite solar cells restricts the thickness of the photoactive layer 150–300 nm, further limiting optical absorption and device efficiency [117,118,119,120,121]. Core-shell nanoparticles are being implemented to address these issues through the following:

3.2.1. Light Harvesting Enhancement

The incorporation of core-shell nanoparticles into photovoltaic devices as depicted in Figure 4a,b, particularly semitransparent perovskite solar cells, offers substantial advantages for light harvesting [122,123,124,125]. Metallic cores, such as Au or Ag, enhance local electromagnetic fields through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects, leading to improved light absorption. These metallic cores enable light to be concentrated into sub-wavelength regions, amplifying the local electromagnetic field and optimizing light harvesting. This results in enhanced photocurrent generation, as presented in Figure 4c, and an overall increase in PCE, as illustrated in Figure 4d [126,127].
Despite these advantages, there are several practical challenges that must be addressed to fully realize the potential of core-shell NPs in perovskite solar cells. Issues such as material compatibility, achieving uniform dispersion of nanoparticles within the layers, and mitigating lead leaching from perovskite materials remain critical hurdles [129,130,131].

3.2.2. Stability Improvements

Dielectric shells provide critical stability enhancements for PSCs by shielding the sensitive perovskite layer from environmental stressors such as moisture, oxygen, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This protective barrier significantly enhances device longevity and operational stability, addressing one of the key challenges in perovskite solar cell technology [132,133,134,135].
Materials such as zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) are commonly employed as dielectric shells due to their dual functionality. These shells stabilize the perovskite layer while simultaneously improving electron mobility, facilitating efficient charge transport, and minimizing recombination losses. By integrating these dielectric shells, PSCs achieve enhanced electron transport and greater resilience against environmental degradation [136,137,138,139].
The ability of dielectric shells to mitigate degradation mechanisms is pivotal in extending the lifespan and reliability of PSCs. Their multifunctional role as both a stabilizing and performance-enhancing component underscores their importance in advancing the practical deployment of perovskite-based photovoltaic devices.

3.3. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Core-shell NPs enhance the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) by improving light absorption, electron injection, and transport and minimising recombination. Embedding these NPs in the photoanode as illustrated in Figure 5a,b or adding these core-shell nanoparticles (Figure 5c) to the electrolyte both increase the optical path length. They also enhance light scattering, which increases photon absorption [140]. Additionally, dielectric shells such as ZnO or SiO2 improve electron transport, and they minimize recombination, leading to improved overall device performance, as shown in Figure 5d,e [141,142].
Energy level alignment is another important benefit, where the presence of core-shell NPs ensures more efficient electron transfer between the dye, the semiconductor, and the electrolyte [144]. DSSCs with integrated core-shell NPs have shown clear improvements in photocurrent and in PCE [145,146,147,148,149], where reductions in recombination losses, improved light harvesting, and better electron injections have led to PCE increases of 10–30%, thus contributing to much more efficient DSSCs [150,151,152].

3.4. Inorganic Solar Cells

The integration of core-shell NPs into inorganic solar cells has proven to be a promising approach for enhancing device efficiency. These nanoparticles play a critical role in improving light absorption, reducing reflection losses, and managing thermal effects in silicon-based and thin-film solar cells [153,154,155].

Enhanced Light Scattering and Trapping

Core-shell nanoparticles are instrumental in enhancing light absorption within silicon-based solar cells through effective light scattering and trapping mechanisms as demonstrated in Figure 6a,b. The dielectric shells of these nanoparticles scatter incoming light, increasing its optical path length within the active layer, which enhances photocurrent generation. This mechanism is particularly advantageous in reducing reflection losses, thereby allowing more light to be absorbed by the semiconductor material [156,157,158].
In thin-film photovoltaic devices, such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) solar cells, core-shell nanoparticles facilitate improved light absorption in thinner active layers. By doing so, they enhance device efficiency without compromising charge transport properties [159,160]. Furthermore, core-shell nanoparticles can serve as anti-reflective coatings, decreasing surface reflectivity and maximizing light transmission into the active layer, thus boosting the overall efficiency of silicon solar cells [161].
Figure 6. (a) Schematic representation of a silicon solar cell incorporating core-shell nanoparticles. (b) Illustration of incident light interaction with SiO2-TiO2 core-shell structures compared to solid sphere structures, highlighting their role in light transmission and scattering. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [162,163]. Copyright 2019, Springer and Copyright 2019, Elsevier.
Figure 6. (a) Schematic representation of a silicon solar cell incorporating core-shell nanoparticles. (b) Illustration of incident light interaction with SiO2-TiO2 core-shell structures compared to solid sphere structures, highlighting their role in light transmission and scattering. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [162,163]. Copyright 2019, Springer and Copyright 2019, Elsevier.
Photonics 12 00555 g006

4. Challenges and Future Directions

4.1. Current Limitations

Despite their great potential outlined in this review, core-shell NPs face several challenges that must be addressed before their widespread adoption in photovoltaic (PV) technologies. These challenges include scalability issues, high manufacturing costs, limited plasmonic resonance lifetimes, and material stability [164,165]. Current synthesis methods, such as chemical reduction and seed-mediated growth, are costly and lack precise control over the general patterning and regularity of NP arrays. This lack of control compromises reproducibility and scalability for large-area production, which is critical for industrial applications [166].
A significant issue is the difficulty in patterning regular arrays of core-shell NPs for broadband optical absorption [167]. While conventional lithographic methods, such as electron-beam lithography and femtosecond laser processing, offer precise patterning, they remain costly, requiring specialized facilities, and hence are not scalable for large-area devices or modules [168,169]. Soft lithography techniques, including microcontact printing and nanoimprint lithography, provide a cost-effective and scalable alternative for large-area nanopatterning, making them promising for photovoltaic applications [170,171]. Block copolymer self-assembly has also emerged as a viable bottom-up approach for fabricating periodic nanostructures, offering tunability and large-area scalability, though challenges in defect control and domain alignment remain [172]. Additionally, advanced patterning methods used in OLED display manufacturing, such as inkjet printing and nanoimprint lithography, could offer new avenues for integrating core-shell NP arrays into scalable photovoltaic technologies [173].
Additionally, while dielectric shells are effective in protecting NPs, the long-term stability of these interfaces under real-world conditions remains a concern. Environmental factors, such as exposure to moisture, UV light, and temperature fluctuations, can degrade the metal-dielectric interface, leading to performance loss over time [174,175].
Finally, environmental and toxicity concerns, especially with materials like Ag, Au, and Pb, pose sustainability challenges that need to be addressed for broader adoption [176]. Additionally, these elements are increasingly being scrutinized as critical materials in the energy transition, with potential supply constraints due to their competing demand in sectors such as electronics, catalysis, and battery storage [177]. For instance, Ag is extensively used in photovoltaic modules and electronic circuits [178,179,180,181,182,183], while Au is crucial for high-performance electronic components [184,185,186]. Lead, despite its established toxicity, remains in use in perovskite solar cells, raising concerns about long-term environmental impact and regulatory restrictions [187,188]. While this challenge is primarily associated with the perovskite material itself rather than the core-shell structure, the integration of core-shell nanostructures into perovskite solar cells (fourth-generation solar cells) presents opportunities for enhanced stability and performance. In this context, colloidal core-shell structures of halide perovskites could also be considered, as they offer multiphoton excitations, which can be advantageous for improving light-harvesting efficiency and carrier dynamics in next-generation photovoltaic devices [189]. Exploring alternative materials or recycling strategies will be essential for ensuring the sustainable deployment of core-shell NPs in PV applications.

4.2. Some Solutions

To address these challenges, targeted approaches are needed that provide direct solutions to the high cost and low scalability problems. Among them are the following:
  • Scalable Synthesis Techniques
    • Advanced Synthesis Methods: Continuous flow synthesis and template-assisted approaches offer better scalability and control over particle uniformity. For example, continuous flow systems provide consistent reaction conditions, improving monodispersity and reproducibility in large-scale production [190,191]. From the point of view of large-scale device fabrication, these methods are not yet industry-standard due to high initial setup costs and technical challenges in scaling to multi-ton production levels [192,193].
    • Self-assembly with Directed Control: Self-assembly techniques combined with external fields (electric or magnetic) can pattern nanoparticles into ordered arrays, improving optical performance while reducing fabrication costs. Large-scale fabrication would require consistent control of nanoparticle positioning across large areas, which remains challenging and limits industrial adoption [194,195,196,197].
  • Integration into PV Devices
    • Efficient Deposition Techniques: Advanced deposition methods such as spin-coating, spray-coating, and inkjet printing of core-shell nanoparticles enable the incorporation of nanoparticles into large-area solar modules with little extra costs. For example, inkjet printing allows precise deposition of core-shell NPs into pre-designed patterns, ensuring optimal placement for enhancing light trapping and charge transport [198,199]. Despite all the progress made in recent years, there remain some serious obstacles for large-scale implementations, such as issues with nozzle clogging and ink formulation, which need to be addressed to improve reliability and throughput [200,201].
    • Optimized Placement: The placement of core-shell NPs within the active or transport layers of PV devices should be optimized based on the target performance metric, such as light absorption or charge extraction. While simulations provide valuable insights, translating these into practical fabrication methods requires standardized protocols and advanced computational design tools to address inconsistencies [202,203,204].
  • Improving Long-term Stability
    • Robust Shell Materials: Using advanced shell materials, such as alumina or zirconia, can enhance chemical and thermal stability. These materials resist environmental degradation and maintain performance under real-world conditions [205,206]. Large-scale fabrication would require the development of cost-effective and scalable methods for depositing such shells, as current approaches like atomic layer deposition are expensive and need further refinement [207].
    • Encapsulation Techniques: Encapsulation of the entire solar cell, using barrier films or coatings, can protect core-shell NPs from moisture, oxygen, and UV light, extending the operational lifetime of the device [208,209,210]. This additional step adds to manufacturing costs, which industries are reluctant to absorb unless significant performance gains are demonstrated [211].
  • Environmental Sustainability
    • Non-toxic Materials: Developing non-toxic alternatives to toxic materials (e.g., aluminium-based plasmonic nanoparticles instead of lead-based materials) is essential for sustainable adoption [212]. Despite all the progress made in developing these alternatives, achieving comparable optical properties with non-toxic materials remains a significant technical challenge [213,214,215].
    • Lifecycle Assessment: Comprehensive lifecycle assessments can help quantify the environmental impact of core-shell NPs, identifying areas where improvements can be made in material selection and processing [216,217]. These assessments are still in their infancy for many emerging nanoparticle technologies, hindering their industrial acceptance [218].
  • Advanced Material Design
    • Bimetallic Core-Shell Structures: Recent theoretical studies highlight the potential of bimetallic plasmonic core-shell structures with limited surface segregation. Combining metals with complementary properties (e.g., Au-Ag or Cu-Al) can result in core-shell NPs with tunable optical and electronic properties, tailored for specific PV applications. These designs leverage fundamental material properties, such as differences in cohesive energy and enthalpy of mixing, to achieve optimal performance [219,220,221,222]. From the point of view of large-scale device fabrication, scalable and cost-effective synthesis of these structures remains an obstacle [223].

5. Conclusions

Core-shell nanoparticles represent a disruptive advancement in photovoltaic technologies, offering innovative solutions to major challenges like light absorption and charge transport. These NPs can be integrated into a wide range of PV technologies, including organic, perovskite, dye-sensitized, and inorganic solar cells, where they lead to significant improvements in efficiency and performance of these devices. A summary of typical experimental results is shown in Table 1. The data refer to standard photovoltaic devices and reflect the current benchmarks in the field.
State-of-the-art research in this area continues to address the challenges of scalability, material compatibility, and environmental sustainability, where core-shell NPs hold the potential to drive the next generation of high-efficient, durable, and cost-effective solar cells. Mastering these new technologies will make solar energy more affordable and accessible worldwide, where advanced solar technologies have already become an essential part of a global transition towards sustainable and renewable energy production and consumption.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.Q., D.W. and S.K.; Literature Review and Investigation A.Q., D.W. and S.K.; resources, S.K. and D.W; Data Curation, S.K.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, S.K.; Writing—Review and Editing, A.Q., D.W. and S.K.; Supervision, A.Q. and D.W.; Project Administration, A.Q.; Funding Acquisition, A.Q. and D.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

DW would like to thank the financial support through the National Equipment program of the NRF (grant UID 116181). This research received financial support by the DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Strong Materials (CoE-SM) in terms of materials, major equipment and an MSc and PhD bursary for SK.

Acknowledgments

AQ would like to thank the Mandelstam Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of the Witwatersrand for support, Maurizio Ferrari and Alessandro Chiasera for their kind invitation to the IFN-CNR in Trento, and Bouchta Sahraoui and his group at the Photonics Laboratory of the University of Angers LPhiA as his main hosts during his Sabbatical leave in 2024/2025.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Gielen, D.; Boshell, F.; Saygin, D.; Bazilian, M.D.; Wagner, N.; Gorini, R. The role of renewable energy in the global energy transformation. Energy Strategy Rev. 2019, 24, 50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Hassan, Q.; Algburi, S.; Sameen, A.Z.; Salman, H.M.; Jaszczur, M. A review of hybrid renewable energy systems: Solar and wind-powered solutions: Challenges, opportunities, and policy implications. Results Eng. 2023, 20, 101621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Hasan, M.M.; Hossain, S.; Mofijur, M.; Kabir, Z.; Badruddin, I.A.; Yunus Khan, T.M.; Jassim, E. Harnessing solar power: A review of photovoltaic innovations, solar thermal systems, and the dawn of energy storage solutions. Energies 2023, 16, 6456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Maka, A.O.; Ghalut, T.; Elsaye, E. The pathway toward decarbonisation and net-zero emissions by 2050: The role of solar energy technology. Green Technol. Sustain. 2024, 2, 100107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Machín, A.; Márquez, F. Advancements in photovoltaic cell materials: Silicon, Organic, and Perovskite Solar cells. Materials 2024, 17, 1165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Verlinden, P.; Young, D.L.; Xiong, G.; Reese, M.O.; Mansfield, L.M.; Powalla, M.; Haegel, N.M. Photovoltaic device innovation for a solar future. Device 2023, 1, 100013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Gerold, E.; Antrekowitsch, H. Advancements and Challenges in Photovoltaic Cell Recycling: A Comprehensive Review. Sustainability 2024, 16, 2542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Noman, M.; Khan, Z.; Jan, S.T. A comprehensive review on the advancements and challenges in perovskite solar cell technology. RSC Adv. 2024, 14, 5131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Lu, L.; Luo, Z.; Xu, T.; Yu, L. Cooperative plasmonic effect of Ag and Au nanoparticles on enhancing performance of polymer solar cells. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Omrani, M.; Keshavarzi, R.; Abdi-Jalebi, M.; Gao, P. Impacts of plasmonic nanoparticles incorporation and interface energy alignment for highly efficient carbon-based perovskite solar cells. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 5367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Smith, J.G.; Faucheaux, J.A.; Jain, P.K. Plasmon resonances for solar energy harvesting: A mechanistic outlook. Nano Today 2015, 10, 80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Babicheva, V.E. Optical processes behind plasmonic applications. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Arinze, E.S.; Qiu, B.; Nyirjesy, G.; Thon, S.M. Plasmonic nanoparticle enhancement of solution-processed solar cells: Practical limits and opportunities. ACS Photonics 2016, 3, 173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Erwin, W.R.; Zarick, H.F.; Talbert, E.M.; Bardhan, R. Light trapping in mesoporous solar cells with plasmonic nanostructures. Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 1601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Zhang, Y.J.; Radjenovic, P.M.; Zhou, X.S.; Zhang, H.; Yao, J.L.; Li, J.F. Plasmonic core–shell nanomaterials and their applications in spectroscopies. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2005900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Li, J.F.; Zhang, Y.J.; Ding, S.Y.; Panneerselvam, R.; Tian, Z.Q. Core–shell nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Chem. Rev. 2017, 117, 5069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Wei, S.; Wang, Q.; Zhu, J.; Sun, L.; Lin, H.; Guo, Z. Multifunctional composite core–shell nanoparticles. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 4502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ghosh Chaudhuri, R.; Paria, S. Core/shell nanoparticles: Classes, properties, synthesis mechanisms, characterization, and applications. Chem. Rev. 2012, 112, 2433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Gawande, M.B.; Goswami, A.; Asefa, T.; Guo, H.; Biradar, A.V.; Peng, D.L.; Varma, R.S. Core–shell nanoparticles: Synthesis and applications in catalysis and electrocatalysis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2015, 44, 7590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Li, S.; Lin, H.; Chu, C.; Martin, C.; MacSwain, W.; Meulenberg, R.W.; Zheng, W. Interfacial B-site ion diffusion in all-inorganic core/shell perovskite nanocrystals. ACS Nano 2023, 17, 22477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Rycenga, M.; Cobley, C.M.; Zeng, J.; Li, W.; Moran, C.H.; Zhang, Q.; Xia, Y. Controlling the synthesis and assembly of silver nanostructures for plasmonic applications. Chem. Rev. 2011, 111, 3669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Cortés, E.; Wendisch, F.J.; Sortino, L.; Mancini, A.; Ezendam, S.; Saris, S.; Maier, S.A. Optical metasurfaces for energy conversion. Chem. Rev. 2022, 122, 15082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Alessandri, I.; Lombardi, J.R. Enhanced Raman scattering with dielectrics. Chem. Rev. 2016, 116, 14921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Kluczyk-Korch, K.; Antosiewicz, T.J. Hot carrier generation in a strongly coupled molecule–plasmonic nanoparticle system. Nanophotonics 2023, 12, 1722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Cao, K.; Zhu, Q.; Shan, B.; Chen, R. Controlled synthesis of Pd/Pt core shell nanoparticles using area-selective atomic layer deposition. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 8470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Chatterjee, K.; Sarkar, S.; Rao, K.J.; Paria, S. Core/shell nanoparticles in biomedical applications. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2014, 209, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. El-Toni, A.M.; Habila, M.A.; Labis, J.P.; ALOthman, Z.A.; Alhoshan, M.; Elzatahry, A.A.; Zhang, F. Design, synthesis and applications of core–shell, hollow core, and nanorattle multifunctional nanostructures. Nanoscale 2016, 8, 2510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Purbia, R.; Paria, S. Yolk/shell nanoparticles: Classifications, synthesis, properties, and applications. Nanoscale 2015, 7, 19789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Altammar, K.A. A review on nanoparticles: Characteristics, synthesis, applications, and challenges. Front. Microbiol. 2023, 14, 1155622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Nyabadza, A.; McCarthy, É.; Makhesana, M.; Heidarinassab, S.; Plouze, A.; Vazquez, M.; Brabazon, D. A review of physical, chemical and biological synthesis methods of bimetallic nanoparticles and applications in sensing, water treatment, biomedicine, catalysis and hydrogen storage. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2023, 321, 103010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Yao, Q.; Yuan, X.; Fung, V.; Yu, Y.; Leong, D.T.; Jiang, D.E.; Xie, J. Understanding seed-mediated growth of gold nanoclusters at molecular level. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Kwizera, E.A.; Chaffin, E.; Wang, Y.; Huang, X. Synthesis and properties of magnetic-optical core–shell nanoparticles. RSC Adv. 2017, 7, 17153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Han, G.H.; Kim, K.Y.; Nam, H.; Kim, H.; Yoon, J.; Lee, J.H.; Yu, T. Facile direct seed-mediated growth of AuPt bimetallic shell on the surface of Pd nanocubes and application for direct H2O2 synthesis. Catalysts 2020, 10, 650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Nguyen, M.D.; Tran, H.V.; Xu, S.; Lee, T.R. Fe3O4 nanoparticles: Structures, synthesis, magnetic properties, surface functionalization, and emerging applications. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Brollo, M.E.F.; López-Ruiz, R.; Muraca, D.; Figueroa, S.J.; Pirota, K.R.; Knobel, M. Compact Ag@ Fe3O4 core-shell nanoparticles by means of single-step thermal decomposition reaction. Sci. Rep. 2014, 4, 6839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Baaziz, W.; Pichon, B.P.; Liu, Y.; Grenèche, J.M.; Ulhaq-Bouillet, C.; Terrier, E.; Begin-Colin, S. Tuning of synthesis conditions by thermal decomposition toward core–Shell CoxFe1−xO@CoyFe3−yO4 and CoFe2O4 nanoparticles with spherical and cubic shapes. Chem. Mater. 2014, 26, 5063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Reimhult, E.; Schroffenegger, M.; Lassenberger, A. Design principles for thermoresponsive core–shell nanoparticles: Controlling thermal transitions by brush morphology. Langmuir 2019, 35, 7092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Riedel, R.; Mahr, N.; Yao, C.; Wu, A.; Yang, F.; Hampp, N. Synthesis of gold–silica core–shell nanoparticles by pulsed laser ablation in liquid and their physico-chemical properties towards photothermal cancer therapy. Nanoscale 2020, 12, 3007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Cui, H.; Fang, X.; Qi, X.; Wang, Y.; Wang, H.; Zhai, Z.; Liu, J. Laser-fabricated core-shell Ti/W based photocatalytic films with superhydrophilic self-cleaning properties. Surf. Interfaces 2025, 61, 106147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Lermusiaux, L.; Plissonneau, M.; Bertry, L.; Drisko, G.L.; Buissette, V.; Le Mercier, T.; Tréguer-Delapierre, M. Seeded growth of ultrathin gold nanoshells using polymer additives and microwave radiation. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 17831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Barad, H.N.; Kwon, H.; Alarcón-Correa, M.; Fischer, P. Large area patterning of nanoparticles and nanostructures: Current status and future prospects. ACS Nano 2021, 15, 5861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Jones, M.R.; Osberg, K.D.; Macfarlane, R.J.; Langille, M.R.; Mirkin, C.A. Templated techniques for the synthesis and assembly of plasmonic nanostructures. Chem. Rev. 2011, 111, 3736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Kamarudheen, R.; Kumari, G.; Baldi, A. Plasmon-driven synthesis of individual metal@ semiconductor core@ shell nanoparticles. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 3957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Mayer, K.M.; Hafner, J.H. Localized surface plasmon resonance sensors. Chem. Rev. 2011, 111, 3828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Petryayeva, E.; Krull, U.J. Localized surface plasmon resonance: Nanostructures, bioassays and biosensing—A review. Anal. Chim. Acta 2011, 706, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Chen, G.; Shen, J.; Ohulchanskyy, T.Y.; Patel, N.J.; Kutikov, A.; Li, Z.; Han, G. (α-NaYbF4: Tm3+)/CaF2 core/shell nanoparticles with efficient near-infrared to near-infrared upconversion for high-contrast deep tissue bioimaging. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 8280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Canham, L. Introductory lecture: Origins and applications of efficient visible photoluminescence from silicon-based nanostructures. Faraday Discuss. 2020, 222, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Guidelli, E.J.; Baffa, O.; Clarke, D.R. Enhanced UV emission from silver/ZnO and gold/ZnO core-shell nanoparticles: Photoluminescence, radioluminescence, and optically stimulated luminescence. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 14004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Lee, S.H.; Kim, Y.; Jang, H.; Min, J.H.; Oh, J.; Jang, E.; Kim, D. The effects of discrete and gradient mid-shell structures on the photoluminescence of single InP quantum dots. Nanoscale 2019, 11, 23251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Shin, T.; Cho, K.S.; Yun, D.J.; Kim, J.; Li, X.S.; Moon, E.S.; Jung, T.S. Exciton recombination, energy-, and charge transfer in single-and multilayer quantum-dot films on silver plasmonic resonators. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 26204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Feng, L.; Li, W.; Bao, J.; Zheng, Y.; Li, Y.; Ma, Y.; Wu, A. Synthesis and luminescence properties of core-shell-shell composites: SiO2@ PMDA-Si-Tb@ SiO2 and SiO2@ PMDA-Si-Tb-phen@ SiO2. Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Wang, S.; Jarrett, B.R.; Kauzlarich, S.M.; Louie, A.Y. Core/shell quantum dots with high relaxivity and photoluminescence for multimodality imaging. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 3848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Fan, W.; Leung, M.K. Recent development of plasmonic resonance-based photocatalysis and photovoltaics for solar utilization. Molecules 2016, 21, 180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Liu, X.; Qiu, J. Recent advances in energy transfer in bulk and nanoscale luminescent materials: From spectroscopy to applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2015, 44, 8714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Chen, C.; Zheng, S.; Song, H. Photon management to reduce energy loss in perovskite solar cells. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2021, 50, 7250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Bijelić, L.; Ruiz-Zepeda, F.; Hodnik, N. The role of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and aberration corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy in unraveling the structure-property relationships of Pt-based fuel cells electrocatalysts. Inorg. Chem. Front. 2024, 11, 323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Malatesta, M. Transmission electron microscopy as a powerful tool to investigate the interaction of nanoparticles with subcellular structures. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 12789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Lee, B.; Yoon, S.; Lee, J.W.; Kim, Y.; Chang, J.; Yun, J.; Lee, J.H. Statistical characterization of the morphologies of nanoparticles through machine learning based electron microscopy image analysis. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 17125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Rice, S.B.; Chan, C.; Brown, S.C.; Eschbach, P.; Han, L.; Ensor, D.S.; Grulke, E.A. Particle size distributions by transmission electron microscopy: An interlaboratory comparison case study. Metrologia 2013, 50, 663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Logsdail, A.J.; Johnston, R.L. Predicting the optical properties of core–shell and Janus segregated Au–M nanoparticles (M= Ag, Pd). J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116, 23628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Zhang, W.E.I.; Saliba, M.; Stranks, S.D.; Sun, Y.; Shi, X.; Wiesner, U.; Snaith, H.J. Enhancement of perovskite-based solar cells employing core–shell metal nanoparticles. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 4510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Selopal, G.S.; Zhao, H.; Wang, Z.M.; Rosei, F. Core/shell quantum dots solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 1908762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Li, W.; Elzatahry, A.; Aldhayan, D.; Zhao, D. Core–shell structured titanium dioxide nanomaterials for solar energy utilization. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2018, 47, 8237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Chen, G.; Ågren, H.; Ohulchanskyy, T.Y.; Prasad, P.N. Light upconverting core–shell nanostructures: Nanophotonic control for emerging applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2015, 44, 1713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Ju, S.; Kim, H.; Kwak, H.; Kang, C.; Jung, I.; Oh, S.; Lee, K.T. Dielectric light-trapping nanostructure for enhanced light absorption in organic solar cells. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 20649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Dolatyari, M.; Tahmasebi, M.; Dolatyari, S.; Rostami, A.; Zarghami, A.; Yadav, A.; Klein, A. Core/Shell ZnO/TiO2, SiO2/TiO2, Al2O3/TiO2, and Al1. 9Co0. 1O3/TiO2 Nanoparticles for the Photodecomposition of Brilliant Blue E-4BA. Inorganics 2024, 12, 281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Yu, P.; Yao, Y.; Wu, J.; Niu, X.; Rogach, A.L.; Wang, Z. Effects of plasmonic metal core-dielectric shell nanoparticles on the broadband light absorption enhancement in thin film solar cells. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 7696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Hamed, M.S.; Adedeji, M.A.; Mola, G.T. Rare-earth metal-induced plasmon resonances for enhanced photons harvesting in inverted thin film organic solar cell. Energy Fuels 2021, 35, 15017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Li, B.; Tian, F.; Cui, X.; Xiang, B.; Zhao, H.; Zhang, H.; Wang, D. Review for rare-earth-modified perovskite materials and optoelectronic applications. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 1773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Zhong, Y.; Dai, H. A mini-review on rare-earth down-conversion nanoparticles for NIR-II imaging of biological systems. Nano Res. 2020, 13, 1281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Wang, B.; Zhu, X.; Li, S.; Chen, M.; Liu, N.; Yang, H.; Yang, Y. Enhancing the photovoltaic performance of perovskite solar cells using plasmonic Au@ Pt@ Au core-shell nanoparticles. Nanomaterials 2019, 9, 1263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  72. Wang, L.; Hasanzadeh Kafshgari, M.; Meunier, M. Optical properties and applications of plasmonic-metal nanoparticles. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 2005400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Zhang, X.; Chen, Y.L.; Liu, R.S.; Tsai, D.P. Plasmonic photocatalysis. Rep. Prog. Phys. 2013, 76, 046401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Bogireddy, N.K.R.; Pal, U.; Gomez, L.M.; Agarwal, V. Size controlled green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Coffea arabica seed extract and their catalytic performance in 4-nitrophenol reduction. RSC Adv. 2018, 8, 24826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Ghosh, S.; Das, A.P. Modified titanium oxide (TiO2) nanocomposites and its array of applications: A review. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 2015, 97, 514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Taleb, A.; Mesguich, F.; Hérissan, A.; Colbeau-Justin, C.; Yanpeng, X.; Dubot, P. Optimized TiO2 nanoparticle packing for DSSC photovoltaic applications. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2016, 148, 59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Bist, A.; Pant, B.; Ojha, G.P.; Acharya, J.; Park, M.; Saud, P.S. Novel materials in perovskite solar cells: Efficiency, stability, and future perspectives. Nanomaterials 2023, 13, 1724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  78. Vittal, R.; Ho, K.C. Zinc oxide based dye-sensitized solar cells: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 70, 935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Zhang, P.; Wu, J.; Zhang, T.; Wang, Y.; Liu, D.; Chen, H.; Li, S. Perovskite solar cells with ZnO electron-transporting materials. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1703737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Liu, C.; Xiao, C.; Li, W. Zinc oxide nanoparticles as electron transporting interlayer in organic solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. C 2021, 9, 14114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Lee, W.; Park, S.J. Porous anodic aluminum oxide: Anodization and templated synthesis of functional nanostructures. Chem. Rev. 2014, 114, 7556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  82. Ramli, R.A.; Laftah, W.A.; Hashim, S. Core–shell polymers: A review. RSC Adv. 2013, 3, 15565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Xia, X.; Chao, D.; Qi, X.; Xiong, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Tu, J.; Fan, H.J. Controllable growth of conducting polymers shell for constructing high-quality organic/inorganic core/shell nanostructures and their optical-electrochemical properties. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 4568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Lazaroiu, A.C.; Gmal Osman, M.; Strejoiu, C.V.; Lazaroiu, G. A comprehensive overview of photovoltaic technologies and their efficiency for climate neutrality. Sustainability 2023, 15, 16297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Yu, J.; Zheng, Y.; Huang, J. Towards high performance organic photovoltaic cells: A review of recent development in organic photovoltaics. Polymers 2014, 6, 2473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Wang, K.; Liu, C.; Meng, T.; Yi, C.; Gong, X. Inverted organic photovoltaic cells. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2016, 45, 2937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Roncali, J. Molecular bulk heterojunctions: An emerging approach to organic solar cells. Acc. Chem. Res. 2009, 42, 1719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Wang, G.; Adil, M.A.; Zhang, J.; Wei, Z. Large-area organic solar cells: Material requirements, modular designs, and printing methods. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, 1805089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Firdaus, Y.; Le Corre, V.M.; Karuthedath, S.; Liu, W.; Markina, A.; Huang, W.; Anthopoulos, T.D. Long-range exciton diffusion in molecular non-fullerene acceptors. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 5220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. van Bavel, S.; Sourty, E.; de With, G.; Frolic, K.; Loos, J. Relation between photoactive layer thickness, 3D morphology, and device performance in P3HT/PCBM bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Macromolecules 2009, 42, 7396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Gattu Subramanyam, P.; Krishnaswamy, N.; Guha, K.; Iannacci, J.; Ude, E.N.; Muniswamy, V. Enhanced optical management in organic solar cells by virtue of square-lattice triple core-shell nanostructures. Micromachines 2023, 14, 1574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  92. Lee, J.M.; Kim, S.O. Enhancing organic solar cells with plasmonic nanomaterials. ChemNanoMat 2016, 2, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Liu, S.; Jiang, R.; You, P.; Zhu, X.; Wang, J.; Yan, F. Au/Ag core–shell nanocuboids for high-efficiency organic solar cells with broadband plasmonic enhancement. Energy Environ. Sci. 2016, 9, 898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Anrango-Camacho, C.; Pavón-Ipiales, K.; Frontana-Uribe, B.A.; Palma-Cando, A. Recent advances in hole-transporting layers for organic solar cells. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Chou, C.H.; Chen, F.C. Plasmonic nanostructures for light trapping in organic photovoltaic devices. Nanoscale 2014, 6, 8458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Yao, K.; Zhong, H.; Liu, Z.; Xiong, M.; Leng, S.; Zhang, J.; Jen, A.K.Y. Plasmonic metal nanoparticles with core–bishell structure for high-performance organic and perovskite solar cells. ACS Nano 2019, 13, 5397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Kosco, J.; Bidwell, M.; Cha, H.; Martin, T.; Howells, C.T.; Sachs, M.; McCulloch, I. Enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen evolution from organic semiconductor heterojunction nanoparticles. Nat. Mater. 2020, 19, 559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Wu, B.; Wu, X.; Guan, C.; Fai Tai, K.; Yeow, E.K.L.; Jin Fan, H.; Sum, T.C. Uncovering loss mechanisms in silver nanoparticle-blended plasmonic organic solar cells. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 2004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Zhang, R.; Zhou, Y.; Peng, L.; Li, X.; Chen, S.; Feng, X.; Huang, W. Influence of SiO2 shell thickness on power conversion efficiency in plasmonic polymer solar cells with Au nanorod@ SiO2 core-shell structures. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 25036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Chen, J.D.; Zhou, L.; Ou, Q.D.; Li, Y.Q.; Shen, S.; Lee, S.T.; Tang, J.X. Enhanced light harvesting in organic solar cells featuring a biomimetic active layer and a self-cleaning antireflective coating. Adv. Energy Mater. 2014, 4, 1301777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Thrithamarassery Gangadharan, D.; Xu, Z.; Liu, Y.; Izquierdo, R.; Ma, D. Recent advancements in plasmon-enhanced promising third-generation solar cells. Nanophotonics 2017, 6, 175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Ai, B.; Fan, Z.; Wong, Z.J. Plasmonic–perovskite solar cells, light emitters, and sensors. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 2022, 8, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Mohammadi, M.H.; Fathi, D.; Eskandari, M. Light trapping in perovskite solar cells with plasmonic core/shell nanorod array: A numerical study. Energy Rep. 2021, 7, 1415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Alkhalayfeh, M.A.; Aziz, A.A.; Pakhuruddin, M.Z. An overview of enhanced polymer solar cells with embedded plasmonic nanoparticles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 141, 110726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Ha, M.; Kim, J.H.; You, M.; Li, Q.; Fan, C.; Nam, J.M. Multicomponent plasmonic nanoparticles: From heterostructured nanoparticles to colloidal composite nanostructures. Chem. Rev. 2019, 119, 12278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Wang, W.; Qi, L. Light management with patterned micro-and nanostructure arrays for photocatalysis, photovoltaics, and optoelectronic and optical devices. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2019, 29, 1807275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Han, G.S.; Chung, H.S.; Kim, B.J.; Kim, D.H.; Lee, J.W.; Swain, B.S.; Jung, H.S. Retarding charge recombination in perovskite solar cells using ultrathin MgO-coated TiO2 nanoparticulate films. J. Mater. Chem. A 2015, 3, 9164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Liu, H.; Xiang, L.; Gao, P.; Wang, D.; Yang, J.; Chen, X.; Zhang, Y. Improvement strategies for stability and efficiency of perovskite solar cells. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 3295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Cao, Y.; Liu, H.; Gao, F.; Li, D.; Xiang, L.; Gao, J.; Li, S. Interface optimization and growth control for high efficiency wide bandgap perovskite solar cells. Surf. Interfaces 2023, 37, 102680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Cao, Y.; Wang, X.; Sun, J.; Xiang, L.; Li, D.; He, L.; Li, S. Synergistic ion-anchoring passivation for perovskite solar cells with efficiency exceeding 24% and ultra-ambient stability. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2023, 15, 40032–40041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Forgács, D.; Gil-Escrig, L.; Pérez-Del-Rey, D.; Momblona, C.; Werner, J.; Niesen, B.; Bolink, H.J. Efficient monolithic perovskite/perovskite tandem solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 2017, 7, 1602121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Wali, Q.; Elumalai, N.K.; Iqbal, Y.; Uddin, A.; Jose, R. Tandem perovskite solar cells. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 84, 110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Song, Z.; Chen, C.; Li, C.; Awni, R.A.; Zhao, D.; Yan, Y. Wide-bandgap, low-bandgap, and tandem perovskite solar cells. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 2019, 34, 093001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Lal, N.N.; Dkhissi, Y.; Li, W.; Hou, Q.; Cheng, Y.B.; Bach, U. Perovskite tandem solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 2017, 7, 1602761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Li, H.; Zhang, W. Perovskite tandem solar cells: From fundamentals to commercial deployment. Chem. Rev. 2020, 120, 9950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Ho-Baillie, A.W.; Zheng, J.; Mahmud, M.A.; Ma, F.J.; McKenzie, D.R.; Green, M.A. Recent progress and future prospects of perovskite tandem solar cells. Appl. Phys. Rev. 2021, 8, 041307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Xue, Q.; Xia, R.; Brabec, C.J.; Yip, H.L. Recent advances in semi-transparent polymer and perovskite solar cells for power generating window applications. Energy Environ. Sci. 2018, 11, 1709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Tai, Q.; Yan, F. Emerging semitransparent solar cells: Materials and device design. Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1700192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Shi, B.; Duan, L.; Zhao, Y.; Luo, J.; Zhang, X. Semitransparent perovskite solar cells: From materials and devices to applications. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 1806474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Liao, J.F.; Wu, W.Q.; Jiang, Y.; Zhong, J.X.; Wang, L.; Kuang, D.B. Understanding of carrier dynamics, heterojunction merits and device physics: Towards designing efficient carrier transport layer-free perovskite solar cells. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2020, 49, 381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Rahmany, S.; Etgar, L. Semitransparent perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 2020, 5, 1531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Chandrasekhar, P.S.; Dubey, A.; Reza, K.M.; Hasan, M.N.; Bahrami, B.; Komarala, V.K.; Qiao, Q. Higher efficiency perovskite solar cells using Au@ SiO2 core–shell nanoparticles. Sustain. Energy Fuels 2018, 2, 2267. [Google Scholar]
  123. Fard, A.H.M.; Matloub, S. Design and simulation of bifacial perovskite solar cell with high efficiency using cubic plasmonic nanoparticles. Sol. Energy 2024, 280, 112871. [Google Scholar]
  124. Cheng, P.; An, Y.; Jen, A.K.Y.; Lei, D. New Nanophotonics Approaches for Enhancing the Efficiency and Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2309459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Xu, L.; Yuan, S.; Ma, L.; Zhang, B.; Fang, T.; Li, X.; Song, J. All-inorganic perovskite quantum dots as light-harvesting, interfacial, and light-converting layers toward solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 2021, 9, 18947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Li, X.; Zhu, J.; Wei, B. Hybrid nanostructures of metal/two-dimensional nanomaterials for plasmon-enhanced applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2016, 45, 3187. [Google Scholar]
  127. Tan, D.Q. The search for enhanced dielectric strength of polymer-based dielectrics: A focused review on polymer nanocomposites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020, 137, 49379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. He, Z.; Zhang, C.; Meng, R.; Luo, X.; Chen, M.; Lu, H.; Yang, Y. Influence of Ag@ SiO2 with different shell thickness on photoelectric properties of hole-conductor-free perovskite solar cells. Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Bai, Y.; Liu, C.; Shan, Y.; Chen, T.; Zhao, Y.; Yu, C.; Pang, H. Metal-organic frameworks nanocomposites with different dimensionalities for energy conversion and storage. Adv. Energy Mater. 2022, 12, 2100346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Cayre, O.J.; Chagneux, N.; Biggs, S. Stimulus responsive core-shell nanoparticles: Synthesis and applications of polymer based aqueous systems. Soft Matter 2011, 7, 2234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Datye, A.K.; Votsmeier, M. Opportunities and challenges in the development of advanced materials for emission control catalysts. Nat. Mater. 2021, 20, 1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Wang, Q.; Phung, N.; Di Girolamo, D.; Vivo, P.; Abate, A. Enhancement in lifespan of halide perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2019, 12, 865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. Ma, S.; Yuan, G.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, N.; Li, Y.; Chen, Q. Development of encapsulation strategies towards the commercialization of perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2022, 15, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Bogachuk, D.; Zouhair, S.; Wojciechowski, K.; Yang, B.; Babu, V.; Wagner, L.; Hinsch, A. Low-temperature carbon-based electrodes in perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2020, 13, 3880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Li, J.; Xia, R.; Qi, W.; Zhou, X.; Cheng, J.; Chen, Y.; Zhang, X. Encapsulation of perovskite solar cells for enhanced stability: Structures, materials and characterization. J. Power Sources 2021, 485, 229313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Ekeocha, J.; Ellingford, C.; Pan, M.; Wemyss, A.M.; Bowen, C.; Wan, C. Challenges and opportunities of self-healing polymers and devices for extreme and hostile environments. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2008052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Rao, H.; Sun, W.; Ye, S.; Yan, W.; Li, Y.; Peng, H.; Huang, C. Solution-processed CuS NPs as an inorganic hole-selective contact material for inverted planar perovskite solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2016, 8, 7805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Najafi, M.; Di Giacomo, F.; Zhang, D.; Shanmugam, S.; Senes, A.; Verhees, W.; Andriessen, R. Highly efficient and stable flexible perovskite solar cells with metal oxides nanoparticle charge extraction layers. Small 2018, 14, 1702775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  139. Wang, Q.; Chueh, C.C.; Zhao, T.; Cheng, J.; Eslamian, M.; Choy, W.C.; Jen, A.K.Y. Effects of self-assembled monolayer modification of nickel oxide nanoparticles layer on the performance and application of inverted perovskite solar cells. ChemSusChem 2017, 10, 3803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Tsai, J.K.; Hsu, W.D.; Wu, T.C.; Meen, T.H.; Chong, W.J. Effect of compressed TiO2 nanoparticle thin film thickness on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2013, 8, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  141. Tiwana, P.; Docampo, P.; Johnston, M.B.; Snaith, H.J.; Herz, L.M. Electron mobility and injection dynamics in mesoporous ZnO, SnO2, and TiO2 films used in dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 5166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Ding, B.; Lee, B.J.; Yang, M.; Jung, H.S.; Lee, J.K. Surface-Plasmon Assisted Energy Conversion in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 2011, 1, 421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Brown, M.D.; Suteewong, T.; Kumar, R.S.S.; D’Innocenzo, V.; Petrozza, A.; Lee, M.M.; Snaith, H.J. Plasmonic dye-sensitized solar cells using core− shell metal− insulator nanoparticles. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  144. Mélinon, P.; Begin-Colin, S.; Duvail, J.L.; Gauffre, F.; Boime, N.H.; Ledoux, G.; Warot-Fonrose, B. Engineered inorganic core/shell nanoparticles. Phys. Rep. 2014, 543, 197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  145. Feng, H.P.; Tang, L.; Zeng, G.M.; Zhou, Y.; Deng, Y.C.; Ren, X.; Yu, J.F. Core-shell nanomaterials: Applications in energy storage and conversion. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2019, 267, 46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  146. Wooh, S.; Lee, Y.G.; Tahir, M.N.; Song, D.; Meister, M.; Laquai, F.; Char, K. Plasmon-enhanced photocurrent in quasi-solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells by the inclusion of gold/silica core–shell nanoparticles in a TiO2 photoanode. J. Mater. Chem. A 2013, 1, 12634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  147. Xu, Q.; Liu, F.; Meng, W.; Huang, Y. Plasmonic core-shell metal-organic nanoparticles enhanced dye-sensitized solar cells. Opt. Express 2012, 20, A907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  148. Zheng, Y.Z.; Tao, X.; Zhang, J.W.; Lai, X.S.; Li, N. Plasmonic enhancement of light-harvesting efficiency in tandem dye-sensitized solar cells using multiplexed gold core/silica shell nanorods. J. Power Sources 2018, 376, 32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  149. Chandrasekhar, P.S.; Chander, N.; Anjaneyulu, O.; Komarala, V.K. Plasmonic effect of Ag@ TiO2 core–shell nanocubes on dye-sensitized solar cell performance based on reduced graphene oxide–TiO2 nanotube composite. Thin Solid Film. 2015, 594, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  150. Devadiga, D.; Selvakumar, M.; Shetty, P.; Santosh, M.S. Recent progress in dye sensitized solar cell materials and photo-supercapacitors: A review. J. Power Sources 2021, 493, 229698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  151. Gong, J.; Sumathy, K.; Qiao, Q.; Zhou, Z. Review on dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs): Advanced techniques and research trends. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 68, 246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Zhang, W.; Wu, Y.; Bahng, H.W.; Cao, Y.; Yi, C.; Saygili, Y.; Grätzel, M. Comprehensive control of voltage loss enables 11.7% efficient solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2018, 11, 1787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Nguyen, H.T.; Nguyen, T.T.; Tran, T.T.; Bang, J.; Kumar, M.; Kim, J.; Yun, J.H. Colour-Passive radiative cooling in optoelectronics with Silver/Quantum dot decorated silica multifunctional hybrid structures. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 488, 150840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  154. Mirnaziry, S.R.; Shameli, M.A.; Yousefi, L. Design and analysis of multi-layer silicon nanoparticle solar cells. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 13259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  155. Ali, A.; El-Mellouhi, F.; Mitra, A.; Aïssa, B. Research progress of plasmonic nanostructure-enhanced photovoltaic solar cells. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  156. Tabrizi, A.A.; Pahlavan, A. Efficiency improvement of a silicon-based thin-film solar cell using plasmonic silver nanoparticles and an antireflective layer. Opt. Commun. 2020, 454, 124437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  157. Marangi, F.; Lombardo, M.; Villa, A.; Scotognella, F. New strategies for solar cells beyond the visible spectral range. Opt. Mater. X 2021, 11, 100083. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  158. Sheverdin, A.; Valagiannopoulos, C. Core-shell nanospheres under visible light: Optimal absorption, scattering, and cloaking. Phys. Rev. B 2019, 99, 075305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  159. Devasahayam, S.; Hussain, C.M. Thin-film nanocomposite devices for renewable energy current status and challenges. Sustain. Mater. Technol. 2020, 26, e00233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  160. Manthina, V.; Correa Baena, J.P.; Liu, G.; Agrios, A.G. ZnO–TiO2 nanocomposite films for high light harvesting efficiency and fast electron transport in dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116, 23870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  161. Huang, J.Y.; Wang, Y.; Fei, G.T.; Xu, S.H.; Wang, B.; Zeng, Z. Dual-functional antireflection and down-shifting coating for Si solar cells. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2022, 652, 129907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. Mokari, G.; Heidarzadeh, H. Efficiency enhancement of an ultra-thin silicon solar cell using plasmonic coupled core-shell nanoparticles. Plasmonics 2019, 14, 1041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  163. Zaine, S.N.A.; Mohamed, N.M.; Khatani, M.; Samsudin, A.E.; Shahid, M.U. Improving the light scattering efficiency of photoelectrode dye-sensitized solar cell through optimization of core-shell structure. Mater. Today Commun. 2019, 19, 220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  164. Mondal, K.; Sharma, A. Recent advances in the synthesis and application of photocatalytic metal–metal oxide core–shell nanoparticles for environmental remediation and their recycling process. RSC Adv. 2016, 6, 83612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  165. Langer, J.; Jimenez de Aberasturi, D.; Aizpurua, J.; Alvarez-Puebla, R.A.; Auguié, B.; Baumberg, J.J.; Liz-Marzán, L.M. Present and future of surface-enhanced Raman scattering. ACS Nano 2019, 14, 117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  166. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, L.; Cui, K.; Ge, S.; Cheng, X.; Yan, M.; Liu, H. Flexible electronics based on micro/nanostructured paper. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1801588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  167. Yadav, A.S.; Tran, D.T.; Teo, A.J.; Dai, Y.; Galogahi, F.M.; Ooi, C.H.; Nguyen, N.T. Core–shell particles: From fabrication methods to diverse manipulation techniques. Micromachines 2023, 14, 497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  168. Srivastava, K.; Jacobs, T.S.; Ostendorp, S.; Jonker, D.; Brzesowsky, F.A.; Susarrey-Arce, A.; Odijk, M. Alternative nano-lithographic tools for shell-isolated nanoparticle enhanced Raman spectroscopy substrates. Nanoscale 2024, 16, 7582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  169. Stokes, K.; Clark, K.; Odetade, D.; Hardy, M.; Goldberg Oppenheimer, P. Advances in lithographic techniques for precision nanostructure fabrication in biomedical applications. Discov. Nano 2023, 18, 153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  170. Biswas, A.; Bayer, I.S.; Biris, A.S.; Wang, T.; Dervishi, E.; Faupel, F. Advances in top–down and bottom–up surface nanofabrication: Techniques, applications future prospects. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2012, 170, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  171. Ye, X.; Qi, L. Two-dimensionally patterned nanostructures based on monolayer colloidal crystals: Controllable fabrication, assembly, and applications. Nano Today 2011, 6, 608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  172. Bandaru, S.; Arora, D.; Ganesh, K.M.; Umrao, S.; Thomas, S.; Bhaskar, S.; Chakrabortty, S. Recent Advances in Research from Nanoparticle to Nano-Assembly: A Review. Nanomaterials 2024, 14, 1387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  173. Cai, Z.; Li, Z.; Ravaine, S.; He, M.; Song, Y.; Yin, Y.; Zhang, A.O. From colloidal particles to photonic crystals: Advances in self-assembly and their emerging applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2021, 50, 5898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  174. Bellani, S.; Bartolotta, A.; Agresti, A.; Calogero, G.; Grancini, G.; Di Carlo, A.; Bonaccorso, F. Solution-processed two-dimensional materials for next-generation photovoltaics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2021, 50, 11965. [Google Scholar]
  175. Jankiewicz, B.J.; Jamiola, D.; Choma, J.; Jaroniec, M. Silica–metal core–shell nanostructures. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2012, 170, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  176. Shilpa, G.; Kumar, P.M.; Kumar, D.K.; Deepthi, P.R.; Sadhu, V.; Sukhdev, A.; Kakarla, R.R. Recent advances in the development of high efficiency quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs): A review. Mater. Sci. Energy Technol. 2023, 6, 546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  177. Raabe, D. The materials science behind sustainable metals and alloys. Chem. Rev. 2023, 123, 2436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  178. Alaaeddin, M.H.; Sapuan, S.M.; Zuhri, M.Y.M.; Zainudin, E.S.; Al-Oqla, F.M. Photovoltaic applications: Status and manufacturing prospects. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2019, 102, 318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  179. Zarmai, M.T.; Ekere, N.N.; Oduoza, C.F.; Amalu, E.H. A review of interconnection technologies for improved crystalline silicon solar cell photovoltaic module assembly. Appl. Energy 2015, 154, 173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  180. Luo, W.; Khoo, Y.S.; Hacke, P.; Naumann, V.; Lausch, D.; Harvey, S.P.; Ramakrishna, S. Potential-induced degradation in photovoltaic modules: A critical review. Energy Environ. Sci. 2017, 10, 43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  181. Ogbomo, O.O.; Amalu, E.H.; Ekere, N.N.; Olagbegi, P.O. A review of photovoltaic module technologies for increased performance in tropical climate. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 75, 1225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  182. Farrell, C.C.; Osman, A.I.; Doherty, R.; Saad, M.; Zhang, X.; Murphy, A.; Rooney, D.W. Technical challenges and opportunities in realising a circular economy for waste photovoltaic modules. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020, 128, 109911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  183. Fuentes, M.; Nofuentes, G.; Aguilera, J.; Talavera, D.L.; Castro, M. Application and validation of algebraic methods to predict the behaviour of crystalline silicon PV modules in Mediterranean climates. Sol. Energy 2007, 81, 1396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  184. Miozzo, L.; Yassar, A.; Horowitz, G. Surface engineering for high performance organic electronic devices: The chemical approach. J. Mater. Chem. 2010, 20, 2513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  185. Si, W.; Yan, C.; Chen, Y.; Oswald, S.; Han, L.; Schmidt, O.G. On chip, all solid-state and flexible micro-supercapacitors with high performance based on MnO x/Au multilayers. Energy Environ. Sci. 2013, 6, 3218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  186. Pearton, S.J.; Ren, F.; Zhang, A.P.; Lee, K.P. Fabrication and performance of GaN electronic devices. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 2000, 30, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  187. Schileo, G.; Grancini, G. Lead or no lead? Availability, toxicity, sustainability and environmental impact of lead-free perovskite solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. C 2021, 9, 67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  188. Urbina, A. The balance between efficiency, stability and environmental impacts in perovskite solar cells: A review. J. Phys. Energy 2020, 2, 022001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  189. Chen, W.; Bhaumik, S.; Veldhuis, S.A.; Xing, G.; Xu, Q.; Grätzel, M.; Sum, T.C. Giant five-photon absorption from multidimensional core-shell halide perovskite colloidal nanocrystals. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 15198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  190. Seifert, J.S.; Nees, N.; Khan, H.; Traoré, N.E.; Drobek, D.; Peukert, W.; Taylor, R.N.K. Continuous flow synthesis and simulation-supported investigation of tunable plasmonic gold patchy nanoparticles. Nanoscale 2024, 16, 19284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  191. Fischer, K.; Marlow, P.; Manger, F.; Sprau, C.; Colsmann, A. Microfluidics: Continuous-Flow Synthesis of Nanoparticle Dispersions for the Fabrication of Organic Solar Cells. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2022, 7, 2200297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  192. Baig, N.; Kammakakam, I.; Falath, W. Nanomaterials: A review of synthesis methods, properties, recent progress, and challenges. Mater. Adv. 2021, 2, 1821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  193. Mabrouk, M.; Das, D.B.; Salem, Z.A.; Beherei, H.H. Nanomaterials for biomedical applications: Production, characterisations, recent trends and difficulties. Molecules 2021, 26, 1077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  194. Chai, Z.; Childress, A.; Busnaina, A.A. Directed assembly of nanomaterials for making nanoscale devices and structures: Mechanisms and applications. ACS Nano 2022, 16, 17641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  195. Yang, Z.; Wei, J.; Giżynski, K.; Song, M.G.; Grzybowski, B.A. Interference-like patterns of static magnetic fields imprinted into polymer/nanoparticle composites. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  196. Grzelczak, M.; Vermant, J.; Furst, E.M.; Liz-Marzán, L.M. Directed self-assembly of nanoparticles. ACS Nano 2010, 4, 3591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  197. Ambhulkar, S.; Ravichandran, D.; Zhu, Y.; Thippanna, V.; Ramanathan, A.; Patil, D.; Song, K. Nanoparticle Assembly: From Self-Organization to Controlled Micropatterning for Enhanced Functionalities. Small 2024, 20, 2306394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  198. Karunakaran, S.K.; Arumugam, G.M.; Yang, W.; Ge, S.; Khan, S.N.; Lin, X.; Yang, G. Recent progress in inkjet-printed solar cells. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019, 7, 13873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  199. Razza, S.; Castro-Hermosa, S.; Di Carlo, A.; Brown, T.M. Research Update: Large-area deposition, coating, printing, and processing techniques for the upscaling of perovskite solar cell technology. Apl Mater. 2016, 4, 91508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  200. Zavanelli, N.; Kim, J.; Yeo, W.H. Recent advances in high-throughput nanomaterial manufacturing for hybrid flexible bioelectronics. Materials 2021, 14, 2973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  201. Pirela, S.V.; Martin, J.; Bello, D.; Demokritou, P. Nanoparticle exposures from nano-enabled toner-based printing equipment and human health: State of science and future research needs. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2017, 47, 683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  202. Kalfagiannis, N.; Karagiannidis, P.G.; Pitsalidis, C.; Panagiotopoulos, N.T.; Gravalidis, C.; Kassavetis, S.; Logothetidis, S. Plasmonic silver nanoparticles for improved organic solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2012, 104, 165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  203. Cabrini, S.; Kawata, S. (Eds.) Nanofabrication Handbook; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2012; Volume 180. [Google Scholar]
  204. Ortiz-Perez, A.; van Tilborg, D.; van der Meel, R.; Grisoni, F.; Albertazzi, L. Machine learning-guided high throughput nanoparticle design. Digit. Discov. 2024, 3, 1280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  205. Li, M.; Zhou, S.; Guan, Q.; Li, W.; Li, C.; Bouville, F.; Saiz, E. Robust Underwater Oil-Repellent Biomimetic Ceramic Surfaces: Combining the Stability and Reproducibility of Functional Structures. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 46077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  206. Ramakrishna, S.; Santhosh Kumar, K.S.; Mathew, D.; Reghunadhan Nair, C.P. A robust, melting class bulk superhydrophobic material with heat-healing and self-cleaning properties. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 18510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  207. Ribes, À.; Sánchez-Cabezas, S.; Hernández-Montoto, A.; Villaescusa, L.A.; Aznar, E.; Martínez-Máñez, R.; Cuenca-Bustos, A. Lab and pilot-scale synthesis of MxOm@ SiC core–shell nanoparticles. Materials 2020, 13, 649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  208. Rolston, N.; Printz, A.D.; Hilt, F.; Hovish, M.Q.; Brüning, K.; Tassone, C.J.; Dauskardt, R.H. Improved stability and efficiency of perovskite solar cells with submicron flexible barrier films deposited in air. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 22975. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  209. Uddin, A.; Upama, M.B.; Yi, H.; Duan, L. Encapsulation of organic and perovskite solar cells: A review. Coatings 2019, 9, 65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  210. Cao, M.; Ji, W.; Chao, C.; Li, J.; Dai, F.; Fan, X. Recent Advances in UV-Cured Encapsulation for Stable and Durable Perovskite Solar Cell Devices. Polymers 2023, 15, 3911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  211. Irede, E.L.; Awoyemi, R.F.; Owolabi, B.; Aworinde, O.R.; Kajola, R.O.; Hazeez, A.; Ifijen, I.H. Cutting-edge developments in zinc oxide nanoparticles: Synthesis and applications for enhanced antimicrobial and UV protection in healthcare solutions. RSC Adv. 2024, 14, 20992–21034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  212. Choudhary, A.; Halder, A.; Aggarwal, P.; Govind Rao, V. Plasmonic chemistry for sustainable ammonia production. Commun. Mater. 2024, 5, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  213. Zhang, X.; Ye, S.; Zhang, X.; Wu, L. Optical properties of SiO 2@ M (M= Au, Pd, Pt) core–shell nanoparticles: Material dependence and damping mechanisms. J. Mater. Chem. C 2015, 3, 2282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  214. Chiozzi, V.; Rossi, F. Inorganic–organic core/shell nanoparticles: Progress and applications. Nanoscale Adv. 2020, 2, 5090. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  215. Chambon, S.; Schatz, C.; Sébire, V.; Pavageau, B.; Wantz, G.; Hirsch, L. Organic semiconductor core–shell nanoparticles designed through successive solvent displacements. Mater. Horiz. 2014, 1, 431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  216. Nizam, N.U.M.; Hanafiah, M.M.; Woon, K.S. A content review of life cycle assessment of nanomaterials: Current practices, challenges, and future prospects. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 3324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  217. Saavedra, E.L.; Osma, J.F. Impact of Nanoparticle Additions on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Ceramic Tiles Production. Nanomaterials 2024, 14, 910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  218. Usmani, S.M.; Bremer-Hoffmann, S.; Cheyns, K.; Cubadda, F.; Dumit, V.I.; Escher, S.E.; Haase, A. Review of new approach methodologies for application in risk assessment of nanoparticles in the food and feed sector: Status and challenges. EFSA Support. Publ. 2024, 21, 8826E. [Google Scholar]
  219. Eom, N.; Messing, M.E.; Johansson, J.; Deppert, K. General trends in core–shell preferences for bimetallic nanoparticles. ACS Nano 2021, 15, 8883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  220. Mahmud, S.; Satter, S.S.; Singh, A.K.; Rahman, M.M.; Mollah, M.Y.A.; Susan, M.A.B.H. Tailored engineering of bimetallic plasmonic Au@ Ag Core@ Shell nanoparticles. ACS Omega 2019, 4, 18061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  221. Gargiulo, J.; Herran, M.; Violi, I.L.; Sousa-Castillo, A.; Martinez, L.P.; Ezendam, S.; Cortés, E. Impact of bimetallic interface design on heat generation in plasmonic Au/Pd nanostructures studied by single-particle thermometry. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 3813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  222. Saha, A.; Khalkho, B.R.; Deb, M.K. Au–Ag core–shell composite nanoparticles as a selective and sensitive plasmonic chemical probe for L-cysteine detection in Lens culinaris (lentils). RSC Adv. 2021, 11, 20380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  223. Wang, C.; Shi, Y.; Qin, D.; Xia, Y. Bimetallic core–shell nanocrystals: Opportunities and challenges. Nanoscale Horiz. 2023, 8, 1194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  224. Amiri, O.; Salavati-Niasari, M.; Bagheri, S.; Yousefi, A.T. Enhanced DSSCs efficiency via Cooperate co-absorbance (CdS QDs) and plasmonic core-shell nanoparticle (Ag@ PVP). Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 25227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Figure 1. (a) Photoluminescence (ΔPL) spectra of photothermally grown Au@CeO2 core@shell nanorod at t = 1 min (gray) and t = 15 min (brown). (b) Representative transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image showcasing the morphology of Au@CeO2 core-shell NPs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [55]. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature.
Figure 1. (a) Photoluminescence (ΔPL) spectra of photothermally grown Au@CeO2 core@shell nanorod at t = 1 min (gray) and t = 15 min (brown). (b) Representative transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image showcasing the morphology of Au@CeO2 core-shell NPs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [55]. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature.
Photonics 12 00555 g001
Figure 2. Schematic representations of different core–shell nanoparticle configurations: (a) Yolk–shell structures with a movable core inside a hollow shell, allowing for enhanced surface area and dynamic core–shell interactions; (b) Multicomponent core–shell with distinct compartmentalized regions for multifunctional applications; (c) Multilayered core–shell (layer-by-layer) with alternating materials offering tunable optical and electronic properties; (d) Classic core–shell with an upconversion nanoparticle (UCNP) core and silica shell for optical protection and surface passivation; (e) Composite core–shell with embedded metal/UCNP structures within silica for plasmon-enhanced upconversion; (f) Surface-functionalized UCNPs for targeted delivery or improved solubility via organic ligands or polymers. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [64]. Copyright 2015, The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 2. Schematic representations of different core–shell nanoparticle configurations: (a) Yolk–shell structures with a movable core inside a hollow shell, allowing for enhanced surface area and dynamic core–shell interactions; (b) Multicomponent core–shell with distinct compartmentalized regions for multifunctional applications; (c) Multilayered core–shell (layer-by-layer) with alternating materials offering tunable optical and electronic properties; (d) Classic core–shell with an upconversion nanoparticle (UCNP) core and silica shell for optical protection and surface passivation; (e) Composite core–shell with embedded metal/UCNP structures within silica for plasmon-enhanced upconversion; (f) Surface-functionalized UCNPs for targeted delivery or improved solubility via organic ligands or polymers. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [64]. Copyright 2015, The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Photonics 12 00555 g002
Figure 3. A schematic depicting the embedding of core-shell nanoparticles in (a) the active layer, (b) the hole transport layer, and (c) the electron transport layer of an organic solar cell. (d) Shows the J-V characteristics of devices with core-shell nanoparticles embedded in these layers. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [90,93]. Copyright 2016, The Royal Society of Chemistry and Copyright 2023, MDPI Micromachines.
Figure 3. A schematic depicting the embedding of core-shell nanoparticles in (a) the active layer, (b) the hole transport layer, and (c) the electron transport layer of an organic solar cell. (d) Shows the J-V characteristics of devices with core-shell nanoparticles embedded in these layers. Reproduced with permission from Refs. [90,93]. Copyright 2016, The Royal Society of Chemistry and Copyright 2023, MDPI Micromachines.
Photonics 12 00555 g003
Figure 4. (a) Schematic representation of core-shell nanoparticles integrated into the perovskite layer. (b) SEM cross-sectional image of a perovskite solar cell (PSC) with core-shell NPs. (c) Incident photon to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) spectra of PSCs incorporating Ag@SiO2 core-shell nanoparticles with varying shell thicknesses. (d) J-V characteristics of PSCs containing Ag@SiO2 core-shell nanoparticles with different shell thicknesses. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [128]. Copyright 2020, MDPI Nanomaterials.
Figure 4. (a) Schematic representation of core-shell nanoparticles integrated into the perovskite layer. (b) SEM cross-sectional image of a perovskite solar cell (PSC) with core-shell NPs. (c) Incident photon to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) spectra of PSCs incorporating Ag@SiO2 core-shell nanoparticles with varying shell thicknesses. (d) J-V characteristics of PSCs containing Ag@SiO2 core-shell nanoparticles with different shell thicknesses. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [128]. Copyright 2020, MDPI Nanomaterials.
Photonics 12 00555 g004
Figure 5. (a) Conceptual illustration of Au@SiO2 core–shell nanoparticles embedded within the electrolyte of DSSCs, demonstrating their function in enhancing light absorption and facilitating charge transport. (b) Cross-sectional SEM image of a mesoporous TiO2 photoanode incorporating Au@SiO2 nanoparticles. (c) High-resolution depiction of core–shell nanoparticles featuring ~15 nm gold cores encapsulated by ~3 nm silica shells. (d) Current–voltage (J-V) characteristics of DSSCs showing the impact of Au@SiO2 nanoparticle incorporation on device performance. (e) Comparison of normalized absorption and IPCE spectra for DSSCs with and without Au@SiO2 integration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [143]. Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society.
Figure 5. (a) Conceptual illustration of Au@SiO2 core–shell nanoparticles embedded within the electrolyte of DSSCs, demonstrating their function in enhancing light absorption and facilitating charge transport. (b) Cross-sectional SEM image of a mesoporous TiO2 photoanode incorporating Au@SiO2 nanoparticles. (c) High-resolution depiction of core–shell nanoparticles featuring ~15 nm gold cores encapsulated by ~3 nm silica shells. (d) Current–voltage (J-V) characteristics of DSSCs showing the impact of Au@SiO2 nanoparticle incorporation on device performance. (e) Comparison of normalized absorption and IPCE spectra for DSSCs with and without Au@SiO2 integration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [143]. Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society.
Photonics 12 00555 g005
Table 1. Summary of performance enhancements with plasmonic core-shell nanoparticles in photovoltaic devices.
Table 1. Summary of performance enhancements with plasmonic core-shell nanoparticles in photovoltaic devices.
DeviceType of Core-Shell
Nanoparticles
Improvements in
Efficiency
Reference
Organic Solar CellsAg@TiO2From 7.82% to 9.56%[93]
Perovskite Solar CellsAu@SiO2From 11.44% to 14.57%[122]
Dye-Sensitized Solar CellsAg@PVPFrom 7.04% to 7.9%[224]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Quandt, A.; Wamwangi, D.; Kumalo, S. The Use of Core-Shell Nanoparticles in Photovoltaics. Photonics 2025, 12, 555. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12060555

AMA Style

Quandt A, Wamwangi D, Kumalo S. The Use of Core-Shell Nanoparticles in Photovoltaics. Photonics. 2025; 12(6):555. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12060555

Chicago/Turabian Style

Quandt, Alexander, Daniel Wamwangi, and Sandile Kumalo. 2025. "The Use of Core-Shell Nanoparticles in Photovoltaics" Photonics 12, no. 6: 555. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12060555

APA Style

Quandt, A., Wamwangi, D., & Kumalo, S. (2025). The Use of Core-Shell Nanoparticles in Photovoltaics. Photonics, 12(6), 555. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12060555

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop